Unit 3 - Periodicity

Trends in physical properties

Effective Nuclear Charge

- The nuclear charge of an atom is given by its atomic number. (e.g. Oxygen is +8)
- The outer electrons of the atom do not experience the full attraction of the nuclear
charge because they are shielded from the nucleus because of the repulsion by the
inner electrons and so the effective nuclear charge is lesser than the nuclear charge.
- Nuclear charge increases across a period, but remains constant down a group

Atomic Radius
- the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electrons of an atom.
- Atomic radius decreases across a period, as attraction between the nucleus and
outermost electrons increases, and increases down a group, as the number of shells
increases

Ionic Radius
- Cations: As there are less electrons than protons, the outer shell is lost and the ionic
radius of a cation is lesser than the atomic radius of the atom.
- e.g. Na has a atomic radius of 186 x 10-12 while Na+ has a ionic radius of 98 x
10-12
- Anions: As there are more electrons than protons, there is more electron repulsion and
less attraction, so the ionic radius is more than the atomic radius of the atom.
- e.g. Cl has an atomic radius of 99 x 10-12, but Cl- has an ionic radius of 181 x 10-12

Ionization Energy
- The first ionization energy of an element is the energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms in their ground state.
- Increases across a period as atomic bonds are stronger, and decreases down a group
as there are more outshells and attraction is weaker.
Exceptions
- Groups 2 and 3
- Elements of group 3 have a lower lower ionization energy than elements of
Group 2.
- Elements of Group 3 have the electron configuration of s2p1, which means that
the electron removed is from the p orbital, which is unpaired, making it easier to
remove.
- However, elements of Group 2 have an electron configuration of s2, which is a
complete orbital and when an electron is removed, it is removed from this orbital,
and it is relatively harder to remove the electron.
- Groups 15 and 16
- Elements of Group 16 have a lower ionization energy compared to elements of
Group 15.
 1 1 1
- Elements of Group 15 have an electron configuration of 𝑝𝑥𝑝𝑦𝑝𝑧 which means the p
orbital is half-filled, so it is harder to remove an electron from the orbital.
2 1 1
- Elements of Group 16 have an electron configuration of 𝑝𝑥𝑝𝑦𝑝𝑧 , which means that
the electron that is removed gets removed from the ​orbital which has 2 electrons
already, which are repelling each other. This makes it easier to remove the
electron from the atom.

Electron Affinity
- Electron affinity is the energy change when one mole of electrons is added to one mole
of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous ions.
- Electron affinities reach a maximum for Group 2 and Group 15 elements.
Group 2:
- All Group 2 elements have an electron configuration of ns2, meaning the extra electron
added has to be placed in a new orbital which is further away from the nucleus and so
experiences reduced electrostatic forces of attraction due to shielding from electrons in
the ns orbital.
- Therefore, the energy is needed to overcome electrostatic repulsion between the
electrons in the ns orbital and the added electron.
Group 15:
2 1 1 1
- All Group 15 elements have an electron configuration of 𝑠 𝑝𝑥𝑝𝑦𝑝𝑧 , so the added electron
has to occupy a p orbital that already has a single electron.
- The added electron repels the electron already in the orbital, which leads to more
repulsion and reduced attraction.
- This means that energy is required for the electron repulsion to be overcome, so the
electron affinity is positive as it is an endothermic reaction.
- Note: electron affinity is negative only for nitrogen.

Electronegativity
- ability of an element’s atoms to attract electrons in a covalent bond, also the measure of
the attraction between the nucleus and its outermost electrons, or bonding electrons
- An element with high electronegativity has strong electron pulling power, while an
element with low electronegativity has weak electron pulling power
- Increases across a period, decreases down a group
 Trends in chemical properties
Metals
- For metals, reactivity (how easily metals donate electrons) increases down the group.
- Metallic character decreases while moving across a period
Group 1: Alkali metals
- These metals react with oxygen, water, or halogens; form +1 anions
- They conduct electricity because of the mobility of their outer electron shells
(because of electrostatic forces of attraction), and down the group, atomic radius
increases, which decreases electrostatic forces of attraction, which increases
electron mobility
- Physical properties: Good conductors of electricity, low densities, have gray shine
surfaces when cut
- Chemical properties: VERY reactive, and form ionic compounds with non-metals,
low melting points as you go down the group
Reaction with O2: 4M + O2 → 2M2O; Reaction with H2O: 2M + 2H2O → 2MOH + H2

Non-Metals
- The valence shell is further away from the nucleus down the group, and therefore
reactivity decreases
Group 7: Halogens
- Exist as diatomic molecules, covalently bonded
- More reactive halogens displace less reactive ones from their ionic compounds
- Colored, gradually move from gas (fluorine and chlorine) to liquid (bromine) to
solids (iodine and astatine).

Oxides
- When elements bond with oxygen, oxides are formed
- Change from basic (Metals) to amphoteric to acidic (Non-Metals) across a period
- Oxides of metals have giant ionic structures because ionic compounds is (metal+n.m)
- Oxides of non-metals are molecular covalent compounds, as covalent compounds from
between (n.m + n.m)