Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology 4th Edition Maxfield Test Ba

Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justice and

Criminology 4th Edition Maxfield Test Bank

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 CHAPTER 6
Sampling

KEY TERMS:

• binomial variable - A variable that can have only two values.

• cluster sample - The initial sampling of groups of elements – clusters – followed by the
selection of elements within each of the selected clusters.

• confidence interval - Range of values likely to include a population parameter.

• confidence level - Confidence that sample estimate is within one standard error of the
parameter.

• disproportionate stratified sampling - To purposively produce samples that are not

representative of a population on some variable.

• equal probability of selection method (EPSEM) - Sample will be representative of the

population from which it is selected if all members of the population have an equal
chance of being selected in the sample.

• nonprobability sample - The likelihood that any given element will be selected is not
known.

• population - Theoretically specified grouping of study elements.

• population parameter - Value for a given variable in a population.

• probability sample - Special type of sampling that enables us to generalize to a larger

population and that each member of a population has a known chance or probability of
being selected.

• purposive sample - Selecting a sample on the basis of the researcher’s own knowledge
of the population, its elements, and the nature of research aims.

• quota sample - Selecting a sample by establishing a matrix or table that describes the
characteristics of the target population to be represented.

• sample element - That unit about which information is collected and that provides the
basis of analysis.

• sample statistic - Summary description of a given variable in the sample.

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 • sampling distribution - Range of sample statistics obtained from a selection of many
samples.

• sampling frame - List of elements in a population.

• sampling units - Population elements or aggregations of those elements.

• simple random sample - Individuals or items selected from a sampling frame that are
randomly chosen each with the same probability of being chosen.

• snowball sampling - Identifying a single subject or small number of subjects and then
asking the subject(s) to identify others like him or her who might be willing to participate
in the study.

• standard error - Measure of sampling error.

• stratification - Selecting appropriate number of elements from homogeneous subsets of

that population.

• systematic sampling - Choosing every element systematically from the sample frame,
typically beginning with a randomized number.

CHAPTER OUTLINE:

I. Introduction
II. The Logic of Probability Sampling
a. Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias
b. Representativeness and Probability of Selection
III. Probability Theory and Sampling Distribution
a. The Sampling Distribution of 10 cases
b. From Sampling Distribution to Parameter Estimate
c. Estimating Sampling Error
d. Confidence Levels and Confidence Intervals
e. Probability Theory and Sampling Distribution Summed Up
IV. Probability Sampling
a. Populations and Sampling Frames
b. Simple Random Sampling
c. Systematic Sampling
d. Stratified Sampling
e. Disproportionate Stratified Sampling
f. Multistage Cluster Sampling
g. Multistage Cluster Sampling with Stratification
V. Illustration: Two National Crime Surveys
a. The National Crime Victimization Survey
b. The British Crime Survey

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 c. Probability Sampling in Review
VI. Nonprobability Sampling
a. Purposive Sampling
b. Quota Sampling
c. Reliance on Available Subjects
d. Snowball Sampling
e. Nonprobability Sampling in Review

CHAPTER SUMMARY:

The logic of probability sampling forms the foundation for representing large populations with
small subsets of those populations. The chief criterion of a sample’s quality is the degree to
which it is representative—the extent to which the characteristics of the sample are the same as
those of the population from which it was selected. The most carefully selected sample is almost
never a perfect representation of the population from which it was selected. Some degree of
sampling error always exists.

Probability sampling methods provide one excellent way of selecting samples that will
representative. They make it possible to estimate the amount of sampling error that should be
expected in a given sample. The chief principle of probability sampling is that every member of
the total population must have some known nonzero probability of being selected in the sample.
Our ability to estimate population parameters with sample statistics is rooted in the sampling
distribution and probability theory. If we draw a large number of samples of a given size, sample
statistics will cluster around the true population parameter. As sample size increases, the cluster
becomes tighter.

A variety of sampling designs can be used and combined to suit different populations and
research purposes. Each type of sampling has its own advantages and disadvantages. Simple
random sampling is logically the most fundamental technique in probability sampling although it
is seldom used in practice. Systematic sampling involves using a sampling frame to select units
that appear at some specified interval. Stratification improves the representativeness of a sample
by reducing the sampling error. Disproportionate stratified sampling is especially useful when
we want to select adequate numbers of certain types of subjects who are relatively rare in the
population we are studying. Multistage cluster sampling is frequently used when there is no list
of all the members of a population. The National Crime Victimization Survey and the British
Crime Survey are national crime surveys based on multistage cluster samples. Sampling methods
for each survey illustrate different approaches to representing relatively rare events.

Nonprobability sampling methods are less statistically representative and less reliable than
probability sampling methods. However, they are often easier and cheaper to use. Purposive
sampling is used when researchers wish to select specific elements of a population. This may be
because the elements are believed to be representative or extreme cases or because they represent
the range of variation expected in a population. In quota sampling, researchers begin with a
detailed description of the characteristics of the total population and then select sample members
in a way that includes the different composite profiles that exist in the population. In cases in

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which it’s not possible to draw nonprobability samples through other means, researchers often
rely on available subjects. Snowball samples accumulate subjects through chains of referrals and
are most commonly used in field research.

ACTIVITIES/ASSIGNMENTS:

1. Have students bring to class examples of research using the following techniques:
a. any probability sampling method
b. any non-probability sampling method

Have students present a summary of their research examples to the class focusing upon the
sampling method and the data gather method.

2. Ask the students to conduct their own sampling experiment. Have them observe the entrance
to a mall or other shopping location for ½ hour. Have them log the gender, race, and
approximate age of individuals entering the store. Using this information have them identify
possible sampling errors based on the factors presented in the chapter and others they can
identify such as the type of store, time of day or night, etc.

3. As an out of class assignment, ask students to write a short paragraph on what steps would be
involved in selecting a multistage cluster sample of undergraduate students taking criminal
justice research methods courses in U.S. colleges and universities?

4. Ask students to describe two examples of target populations that might be readily sampled
using lists of email addresses.

5. Ask students to discuss what steps would be involved in selecting a multistage cluster sample of undergraduate
students taking criminal justice research methods courses in U.S. colleges and universities?

LECTURE SUGGESTIONS:

1. Using the Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, illustrate by using different charts,
tables, etc. the various ways researchers gather data. Include some UCR data, some NCVS
data and some attitudinal findings. Ask students to comment on the advantages and
disadvantages of each technique. Ask students to suggest alternative methods of gathering
similar data and what the advantages and disadvantages of these may be.

2. During a class lecture, identify a sampling design and ask students to come up with an
example of an applied study using the sampling technique. Include both probability and non-
probability sampling designs.

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Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology 4th Edition Maxfield Test Ba

3. Discuss possible study populations, elements, sampling units, and sampling frames for
drawing a sample to represent the populations listed here. You may wish to limit your
discussion to populations in a specific state or other jurisdiction.
a. Municipal police officers
b. Felony court judges
c. Auto thieves
d. Licensed automobile drivers
e. State police superintendents
f. Persons incarcerated in county jails

INTERNET RESOURCES:

United Kingdom Home Office. British Crime Survey.

http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/bcs1.html

United States Census Bureau.

http://www.census.gov/

United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics.
http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook/index.html

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