LEARNING UNIT 1B

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

1.1 Introduction
This unit presents details of a conventional water treatment processes. All the treatment
processes used in a conventional water treatment processes are discussed. Water
treatment processes are generally divided into three:
• Pre-treatment processes – screening and grit chambers
• Primary treatment processes – Plain sedimentation
• Secondary treatment processes – Sedimentation and filtration
• Tertiary treatment processes - chlorination

The typical functions of each unit operations are presented in Tables 1.1. Table 1.2 presents the
type of treatment required for different sources of the raw water. The general steps of water
treatment processes are illustrated in Figure 1.1

Treatment Unit Removal (Function)

Aeration, chemicals use Colour, Odour, Taste

Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc
Softening Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and
bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria

Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter and

Reducing substances

Table 1.1. Functions of Water Treatment Units

Source Treatment required
Ground water and spring water fairly free No treatment or Chlorination
from contamination
Ground water with chemicals, minerals and Aeration, coagulation (if necessary),
gases filtration and disinfection
Lakes, surface water reservoirs with less Disinfection
amount of pollution
Other surface waters such as rivers, canals Complete treatment
and impounded reservoirs with a
considerable amount of pollution

Table 1.2. The types of treatment required for different sources

Figure 1.1: General steps in conventional water treatment processes

1.2 Learning Outcomes

On completion of this unit, you should be able to:

• Differentiate between the different types of treatment processes
• Discuss the importance of pre-treatment in water treatment.
• Discuss the characteristics of suspended and colloidal particles
• Discuss the difference between filtration and disinfection processes
• Design the different components of water treatment processes

1.3 Pre-treatment Processes

1.3.1 Screening
Screening is a straining operation to remove floating materials (huge and hard) and
coarse solids from water systems. Here, large floating and suspended substances (e.g.
rags, cans, rocks, branches, leaves, roots, wood, etc.) are removed.

Purposes of screening process are to:

• Separate and remove larger materials → restrict the entry of suspended
solids or floating (huge & hard) materials
• Prevent downstream mechanical plants (pumps, pipes and other equipments)
from clogging or damage
• Launch a water course for the subsequent treatment process

A screen has different sizes of openings, which depends on the volume of screening
and vice versa. Generally, the screen can be either bar type or mesh type (Figure 1.2).
Screen cleaning can be done either manually or mechanically. Manual cleaning is done
using hand rake and the mechanically cleaning using sturdy motor operated steel
rakes. The mechanical rakes are usually have jamming problem. In such cases, the
remedy can be either to replace the teeth or remove the obstruction.

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Figure 1.2. Types of screens: bar screen (Left) and mesh screen (right)

1.3.2 Grit Chambers

Grit chambers are basin to remove the inorganic particles from wastewater in order to
prevent damage to the pumps and their accumulation in sludge digesters. The grit
removal system help protect moving mechanical and hydraulic equipments from
exaggerated wear that may be caused by abrasion. This system help reduce blockage in
the pipelines.

An aerated grit chamber consists of a standard spiral flow aeration tank provided
with air diffusion tubes placed on one side of the tank. The grit particles settle down to
the bottom of the tank. The particle settling rates depend upon the particle size and the
bottom velocity of roll of the spiral flow, which in turn depends on the rate of air
diffusion through diffuser tubes and shape of aeration tank. The heavier particles settle
down whereas the lighter organic particles are carried with roll of the spiral motion.

Grit chambers can be cleaned manually or mechanically. Manually cleaned grit

chambers are cleaned by means of a shovel and should be cleaned at least once a
week. Mechanically cleaned grit chamber have scraper blades that collect the grit
settled on the floor of the grit chamber. The collected grit is elevated to the ground
level by several mechanisms such as bucket elevators, jet pump and air lift. When the
grit can be accumulated in the channel due to the slow speed of grit scraper system, the
remedy will be to obviously increase the speed of the scraper. WISA (2003) gives a

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list of common problems, their causes and actions to take. Details of Grit chambers are
included under unit 1.

1.3.3 Pre-sedimentation
Pre-sedimentation or settling processes are the process by which raw water will be stored
temporarily for about 1-2 hour (detention time) so that the particles will settle out by gravity
only. The process is often used when the raw water turbidity is high or highly variable, i.e. the
water is very dirty (high turbidity). The turbid particles (sand, grit, organic matter) will settle.
This process done without adding coagulants. The collected sludge at the bottom of the
storage will be removed using bottom scraper and hopper attached to the settling tank at the
bottom. .

1.4 Coagulation and Flocculation Processes

Coagulation and flocculation processes are used to separate the suspended solids portion from
the water. Their objectives are to turn the small particles into larger particles called flocs,
either as precipitates (colloids) or suspended particles. The flocs are large enough to be
removed in subsequent process (sedimentation and or filtration). The processes occur in
successive steps intended to overcome the forces stabilizing the suspended particles, allowing
particle collision and growth of floc. If step one is incomplete, the following step will be
unsuccessful. Before we study the coagulation and flocculation processes, it is important to
understand the particle stability (characteristics of the suspended and colloidal particles)
presented below.

Characteristics of Suspended and Colloidal Particles

The colloids or suspended particles are very small (0.001 - 1 m) and usually
negatively charged. The charge arises in four principal ways:
• Ionization
• Adsorption
• Isomorphous replacement
• Structural imperfections

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The negative charge causes the particles to remain in suspension without aggregating
for long periods of time. Colloidal particles are in the size range between dissolved
substances and suspended particles. The particles are too small to be removed by
sedimentation or by sand filtration processes. They are in a solid state and can be
removed from the liquid by:
– physical means such as very high-force centrifugation or
– passage of the liquid through filters with very small pore spaces.

Particles in natural waters remain stable when there is a balance between the
electrostatic force of the charged particles and attractive forces known as van der
Waals forces, giving a net negative charge to the particles. Because of the net negative
charge of the particles, the principal mechanism controlling stability is electrostatic
repulsion, which prevents particles form aggregation. However, surface water particle
suspensions are thermodynamically unstable and given enough time, they will
flocculate and settle.

(A) COAGULATION

The goal of the coagulation process is to alter the surface charge of the particles that
contribute to color and turbidity so that the particles adhere to one another and are
capable of settling by gravity. It is achieved by the addition of one or more
chemicals/coagulants to condition the colloidal particles so that they can aggregate to
form flocs. Positively charged coagulants are added to the water to neutralize the
negative charges of the particles. That means the electrostatic (repulsive) forces are
destabilized or destroyed. The Van de Waals (attractive) forces become strong and
cause particles to aggregate/agglomerate and form micro-floc which can settle by
gravity.

Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. Alum and other
chemicals added to water to form tiny sticky particles called “floc” which attract the

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dirt particles. The combined weight of the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy
enough to sink to the bottom during sedimentation.
Factors affecting Coagulation process are:
• Dosage of Chemical Coagulant
• pH Adjustment
• Turbidity

In standard engineered coagulation processes, coagulant chemicals are added and pH

adjusted to minimize the solubility of the coagulant reaction product. In most cases,
pollutants are removed either by adsorption onto the surface of the coagulant, or
entrapment within a matrix of precipitated coagulant. In some cases, the process is one
of direct reaction of the coagulant with the pollutant to produce an insoluble salt. It
should be noted that adding chemicals always results (in the first instance) in a net
increase in dissolved solids, which may be a consideration when designing systems for
water reuse.

The chemicals used in wastewater treatment are largely the same as those used in
potable water treatment: salts of aluminum and iron—albeit less fine grades. These
both form insoluble gelatinous hydroxide precipitates with (at optimum pH) high
surface charge density, attracting both solid and dissolved pollutants. The pH of the
wastewater is crucial in determining the effectiveness of precipitation with these
substances, and pH correction may be required, unless there is sufficient alkalinity
present to provide natural neutralization of the acid salts used for dosing.

Lime is also added alone as an aid to settlement, but the process is one of weighting
the sludge with high-density particles, rather than coagulation/precipitation. Lime is
reactive with acids, and will not start to work until all acids have been neutralized. An
additional benefit is conferred when lime is used in conjunction with sulfate salts: the
production of insoluble calcium sulfate, rather than soluble calcium chloride, further
weights the flocs produced.

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One particular reduced iron salt, ferrous sulfate (copperas) must always be used in
conjunction with lime. It requires oxygen for the reaction leading to precipitation as
ferric salts and thus results in a large drop in dissolved oxygen. It may not be used
unless the required oxygen is available. It may, however, be locally available as a
cheap by-product of steel processing and this factor may outweigh the problems
associated with its use.

Coagullants
The most commonly used coagulants are metallic ions with a high charge density,
though there are also now some organic coagulants, similar to flocculants but with
lower molecular weight. Aluminum and iron are the most popular ions used:
aluminum as compounds like Al2 (SO4)3 (alum) and iron as compounds like FeCl3 or
Fe2(SO4)3. It has become commonplace in recent years to use ferric sulfate or, to a
lesser degree ferric chloride solution, as an iron based coagulant. Ferric salts are much
better flocculants than ferrous salts, but copperas (FeSO4), which is oxidized to
Fe2(SO4)3 during aeration or by chlorination may be used, allowing ferric chloride to
be produced cheaply by chlorinating a solution of copperas. Iron doses usually vary
between 10 and 90 mg Fe31/L.

6FeSO4 7H2O 1 3Cl2 = 2Fe2 ( SO4 )3 + 2FeCl3 + 42H2O (1.1)

There are also more complex versions of these chemicals such as polyaluminium
silicate sulfate (PASS), with advantages under certain circumstances, but a higher
price tag. Whichever coagulant is used, coagulation efficiency is dependent on the
dose of coagulant, pH and colloid concentrations, and intensity of agitation. Lime may
be used both to adjust pH levels, and as co flocculent.

Jar Test
The two most important factors in coagulant addition are the pH and Dose. The
optimum values of pH and dose are determined empirically from a laboratory test
called jar-test. Optimum pH range for alum is approximately 5.5 to 7.7. A jar-test is a

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laboratory procedure where varying dosages of coagulant are tested in a series of glass
or plastic jars under identical conditions.
Jar Test Procedures
Four to six paddles/jars/beakers are arranged as shown in Figure 1.3. Typically, one
beaker is always used as control. The beakers are injected with coagulant dosages and
then mixed to match flash mix & flocculation field conditions as closely as possible.

After mixing and settling, the jars are observed to determine:

• which dosage produce the largest, strongest floc or
• which dosage produces the floc that settles the fastest.

Figure 1.3. Jar Test

A typical jar test is usually conducted as follows:

• First dosing each jar with the same alum dose and varying the pH in each jar
→ gives optimum pH
• Repeat test in the second set of jars by holding the pH constant (at optimum
pH) and varying the coagulant dose → gives optimum dose

In each cases, the turbidity value in each beaker will be measured. The optimum pH or
dose will be for the condition where turbidity is the lowest.

Coagulant Selection
Selection of the coagulant and coagulant dose is a function of:

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 • characteristics of the coagulant (including its price),
• concentration and type of particles,
• characteristics of NOM,
• water temperature, and
• Other constituents of the raw water such as alkalinity & phosphorus.

It is very important to note some of the factors to be considered during the selection
process:
• High turbidity and high alkalinity water is the easiest to coagulate. Alum, ferric
chloride and high molecular weight polymers have been used successfully for
these waters.
• Controlling pH is of important in coagulating high turbidity and low alkalinity
waters.

Example 1.1
Six beakers are filled with the raw water, and then each is mixed and flocculated
uniformly by identical paddle stirrers driven by a single motor. The raw water contains 15
NTU turbidity and a HCO-3 alkalinity concentration of 50 mg/L expressed as CaCO3. The
turbidity was measured after the mixture was allowed to settle for 30 minutes. Using the
data in the two tables below, determine the optimal pH and coagulant dose for the water.
[Ans: pH = 6.0; Alum dose = 11.5 mg/L]

Parameters Jar numbers for JAR TEST 1

1 2 3 4 5 6
pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Alum dose (mg/L) 10 10 10 10 10 10
Turbidity (NTU) 11 7 5.5 5.7 8 13
JAR TEST 2
pH 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
Alum dose (mg/L) 5 7 10 12 15 20
Turbidity (NTU) 14 9.5 5.0 4.5 6 13

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The results of the two jar tests are plotted in Figure 1.4. In the first test, the optimal pH
was chosen as 6.0, and this pH was used for the second jar test. From the second jar
test, the optimal alum dose was estimated to be about 11.5 mg/L. Optimum pH =6.25
and optimum dose = 11.5 mg/L. In actual practice, the laboratory technician would
probably try to repeat the test using a pH of 6.25 and varying the alum dose between
10 and 15 to pinpoint the optimal conditions.

Figure 1.4. Results of jar-test: (a) constant Alum dose, (b) constant pH

(B) FLOCCULATION
Flocculation is stimulation by mechanical means to agglomerate destabilised particles
into compact, fast settleable particles (or flocs). Flocculation or gentle agitation results
from velocity differences or gradients in the coagulated water, which causes the fine
moving, destabilized particles to come into contact and become large, readily
settleable flocs. It is a common practice to provide an initial rapid (or) flash mix for
the dispersal of the coagulant or other chemicals into the water. Slow mixing is then
done, during which the growth of the floc takes place.

Flocculation is commonly confused with coagulation, and the terms are consequently
used to some extent interchangeably but they are very different processes. Flocculation
is a physical process in which the fine solids produced by coagulation are brought
together into larger particles using controlled low levels of shear. This may be done in
either static (Figure 1.5) or dynamic mixers. Although chemical flocculants are used to
promote flocculation in effluent treatment, in drinking water treatment flocculation is
usually effected solely using shear. Certain organic flocculants with low monomer
residuals may however be used in drinking water sludge treatment.

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Figure 1.5: Static flocculator

Flocculants
Water soluble organic polymer coagulants with a molecular weight in the range 105
and 106 are used to promote the formation of flocs from suspended solids in water.
Flocculants can be anionic (+ve), cationic (-ve) or ampholytic (mixed +ve and -ve).
Cationic polymers are usually based on nitrogen, anionic polymers on carboxylate.

Flocculation depends on:

• Number of particles present
• Relative volume in which the particles occupy
• Velocity gradient (G) in the basin

Slow mixing brings the contacts between the finely divided destabilised matter formed
during rapid mixing.

Rapid or Flash mixing is the process by which a coagulant is rapidly and uniformly
dispersed through the mass of water. This process usually occurs in a small basin
immediately preceding or at the head of the coagulation basin. Generally, the detention
period is 30 to 60 seconds and the head loss is 20 to 60 cms of water. Here colloids are
destabilised and the nucleus for the floc is formed.

Generally, there are there types of mixers:

• Hydraulic mixing- e.g. hydraulic jump mixers, overflow weirs, etc
• Mechanical mixing

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 • Diffuser mixing

Refer the standard text book (Davis, 2010) for more details about the mixers.

Mechanism of Flocculation
Gravitational flocculation: Baffle type mixing basins are examples of gravitational
flocculation. Water flows by gravity and baffles are provided in the basins which
induce the required velocity gradients for achieving floc formation.
Mechanical flocculation: Mechanical flocculator consists of revolving paddles with
horizontal or vertical shafts or paddles suspended from horizontal oscillating beams,
moving up and down.

Coagulation in Water Treatment

➢ Salts of Al(III) and Fe(III) are commonly used as coagulants in water and
wastewater treatment.
➢ When a salt of Al(III) and Fe(III) is added to water, it dissociates to yield
trivalent ions, which hydrate to form aquo metal complexes Al(H2O)63+ and
Fe(H2O)63+. These complexes then pass through a series of hydrolytic
reactions in which H2O molecules in the hydration shell are replaced by OH-
ions to form a variety of soluble species such as Al(OH)2+ and Al(OH)2+.
These products are quite effective as coagulants as they adsorb very strongly
onto the surface of most negative colloids.

Design Criteria
The mean velocity gradient (G) is a measure of power input in mixing processes. The
rate of flocculation is directly proportional to G. The higher the G value the more
violent the mixing.

It is expressed as:
P
G=
 (1.2)

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Where
G = global RMS (root-mean-square) velocity gradient (s-1).
P = power of mixing input to vessel (W).
μ = dynamic viscosity of water (Pa.s).
 = volume of water (m3).
t = detention/residence time (s)

It is important to note that different chemicals require different velocity gradients.

Flocculation requires a velocity gradient high enough to cause particle contact and to
keep the flocs from settling but low enough to prevent the flocs from tearing apart. The
selection of G (or Gt) values for coagulation is dependent on the mixing device,
chemicals selected, and anticipated reactions.
The power imparted by static mixing devices may be computed as:
QH
P=
 (1.3)
Where,
P = water power (KW)
 = unit weight of water (KN/m3) = 9.81
Q = flow rate (m3 /s)
H = total dynamic head (m)
 = efficiency (%)

Flocculation (mixing) time in a conventional treatment process is usually from 10 to

30 minutes. The theoretical detention time is also called hydraulic detention or
residence time. It is defined as:
V
t=
Q (1.4)
Retention time is the average time in the reactor, usually from 10 - 30 sec.

Methods of selection process:

1. Select the number of mixing elements to achieve the desired COV.

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 o 3 elements will yield a COV = about 10% and 6 elements will yield a COV =
about 1 % for mixers designed for turbulent flow (Reynolds number > 5 000).
o Turbulent flow may be assumed for water entering water treatment plants from
pumped sources.
2. Determine the pressure drop per element (Use Figure 1.6)
3. Estimate the detention time, water power, and velocity gradient, and check these
against the design criteria.

Design criteria for Basins:

• COV (Coefficient of Variation) of 1 – 10 %, average 5%
• Detention time (t) = 10 - 30 seconds
• velocity gradient (G) = 600 - 1000 s-1
• Volume (V) < 8 m3
• Maximum allowable headloss = 0.6 – 0.9 m.

Figure 1.6. Typical static mixer pressure drop selection graph for different pipe
diameters (150 – 700 mm) (Source: Davis, 2010)

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Example 1.2 (Example 6.6 Davis)
Design a static mixer for the following conditions:
• Design flow rate = 150 m3 /h
• Minimum water temperature = 5°C
• Mixer aspect ratio = 1.5
• Design COV is 1%

Solution
This problem is solved by iteration; that is, a set of reasonable assumptions is made
and then the calculations are performed to verify or correct the assumptions.
a. Select a pipe diameter - 400 mm for the design flow rate (150 m3/s) – Figure 1.6
b. Select the number of elements to achieve a COV of 1% - 6 elements
c. Determine the headloss per element = 0.16 kPa (Fig. 1.6) .
→ The total headloss through the mixer = (6 element* (0.16 Kpa/element) = 0.96
Kpa
This value is slightly above the allowable head loss = 0.6 - 0.9 m.

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 d. Length of the mixer - with six elements that have an aspect ratio of 1.5 (Given):
L = (number of elements) (aspect ratio) (pipe diameter) = 6x 1.5x0.4 = 3.60 m
e. Volume of the mixer:
 D 2  ( )(0.4)
2
V = AL =  (L ) = (3.6) = 0.45 m3
 4  4
(ok) V < 8 m3/s
f. Detention time:
V 0.45 m 3
t= = 3
= 3.0 *10 −3 hr = 10.9 s
Q 150 m / h (not ok) optimum t = 0 -3 sec
g. Water Power

)*(0.96Kpa*0.102m/Kpa)= 0.04 KW

Density of 1000 kg/m3 is assumed for water.

h. Velocity gradient
 40 W 
G =   = 241.9 s −1
( −3
 1.519 *10 Pa.s 0.45 m)(
3
)  (not ok) G = 600 -1000 s-1

The design criteria (t & G) were not met, and thus it is good to attempt another trial.
The variables that can be changed are the diameter of the pipe and the number of
elements (by assuming a less stringent COV). Alternatively, another manufacturer's
mixer may be suitable under the assumptions given. When the final design
requirement is achieved, two mixers of this size would be provided for redundancy.

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Learning Activity 1.2:
• For example 1.2, try to obtain the correct pipe diameter and number of elements
that can satisfy the design criteria

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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1.5 Sedimentation process
After the coagulation and flocculation stages, the flow is introduced upward through a
“sludge blanket” in the lower part of a gravity settlement tank. Though provision of a
delay time between coagulant and polymer addition is essential, this is sometimes
omitted in error. Good flow distribution across the tank bottom is key. The tank may
be rectangular or circular, inclined or hopper bottomed.

Sedimentation is also called settling or clarifiers. It is a physical water treatment

process used to remove unstable and destabilized suspended and colloidal particles
from a suspension by the force of gravity. It is usually accomplished by reducing the
velocity of the liquid below the point at which it can transport the suspended material.
Water resides for at least 3 hours (Plain sedimentation) and the flocs settle out and
collect at the bottom. Effective sedimentation can achieve 99.9% reduction of
turbidity.

Settling sludge particles are captured in the bottom of the tank by the sludge blanket,
and clarified water is drawn from weirs at the top of the tank. The height of the sludge
blanket is controlled at a design level by removal of sludge via weirs, bell mouths,
hoppers, sludge cones, or pumping. Basic design parameters for settlement are given
in Table 1.3.

Surface loading low acidic water 1 -2 m/h

Surface loading alkaline water 2 – 5 m/h
Side wall depth 3 -5 m
HRT 1 -3 h

Table 1.3. Basic Design Parameters for Settlement Tanks

The most common treatments are therefore coagulation/flocculation followed by

settlement, filtration, or flotation. These processes offer very good nonspecific

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removal of solids, fats/oils/greases, colloidal matter, and several substances (such as
dyestuffs) that bind to the surface of the floc particles.

Membrane treatments are becoming more popular as membranes become cheaper, but
they are still generally far more expensive and less robust than traditional processes, so
they have a long way to go before they will be the designer’s first choice options.

Classic Mistakes
The design elements are hard to control well, or actively create operational or
maintenance
problems.

For example, mixing tanks, with hours of retention time, are used too often on
industrial effluent treatment plants for pH control, frequently coupled with acid or
alkali addition via actuated valves from elevated tanks by gravity.

While an overall process may only be required to produce effluent with pH in the
range 5-9, far tighter pH control (often 60.1 pH units) may well be crucial to many
downstream processes, including flocculation, coagulation, precipitation, disinfection,
and both aerobic and anaerobic biological treatments.

Other common mistakes include a lack of flow and load balancing tanks, using high-
shear centrifugal pumps on shear-sensitive material such as polymer flocs,
comminutors instead of screens for gross solids, plastic piping on high temperature
effluent streams, poor layout details, and selecting various kinds of piping, fittings,
equipment, and instrumentation incapable of handling entrained solids, gases, fats,
oils, and greases in the effluent.

The lookout for “kludges” such as hammers on a string for the “percussive
maintenance” of diaphragm pumps and solids hoppers, or “hammer rash” on hoppers
which have not yet acquired a hammer on a string.

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Classification of Conventional Settling Basins
The different types of settling basins are shon in Figures 1.7-1.8.
• Classification based on shape of the basin:
o Rectangular basins
o Circular basins
• Classification based on the direction of the flow path from inlet to outlet:
o Horizontal flow
o Vertical flow (upflow)
• Classification due to inlet point:
o Peripheral feed
o Centre feed

Figure 1.7. Examples of Rectangula (Left) and Circular (Right) Basins

Figure 1.8. Vertical/Upflow type Circular Sedimentation basins

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Particle Types:
Generally, there are two types of particles settling in sedimentation tanks:
• Discrete/individual particle
– Size and velocity are constant during settling
– Density range from 2000 – 2650 kg/m3
• Flocculant particles:
– Size and velocity fluctuates during settling
– Particles flocculate and grow bigger in size
– Density 1030 – 1070 kg/m3

Types of Settling:
Based on the particle types, there are four types of settling:
• Type I: Discrete settling
• Type II: Flocculant Settling →Settling plus Coagulation
• Type III: Hindered or Zone settling
• Type IV: Compression settling → mostly in WWT

Type 3 and 4 settling are mostly common in Wastewater treatment (Unit 3).
That is why the first two types of settling are discussed here.

Type I: Discrete Particle Settling

Discrete settling is the settling of discrete particles in dilute suspensions →plain
sedimentation. Particles settle discretely at a constant settling velocity. particles have
no tendency to flocculate since there is no significant interaction with neighbouring
particles (See Fig. 1.9). Settle as individual particles and do not flocculate during
settling. Such particles include sand and grit materials (grit – a mixture of abrasive
particles that may include sand, broken glass, etc.).

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Figure 1.9. Type I: Discrete particle settling (Source: Davis, 2010)

When particles settle discretely, the particle settling velocity can be calculated
using Newton’s Law (Equ. 1.5) or Stoke’s Law (Equ. 1.6).
1
 4 g (  s −  )d  2
vs =  
 3C D   (1.5)
g (  s −  )d 2
vs =
18 (1.6)
Where,
νs = settling velocity
ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
d = particle diameter (m)
CD = dimensionless drag coeff.

CD value depends on the type of flow.

- Laminar flow (Re<1): CD (1.7)

24 3
- Transition flow (Re =1-1000): CD = + 0.5 + 0.34 (1.8)
Re Re
- Turbulent flow (Re >104): CD = 0.34-0.4 (1.9)

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Reynolds number (Re) is calculated as:

Re (1.10a)

Note that Stokes' law is valid for spherical discrete particles and laminar flow
(Re ≤1). For non-spherical particles, a drag coefficient ( ) is included for the
calculation of Re (Reynold’s number). Common value of = 0.85.

Re (1.10b)

Where,
ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)
d = particle diameter (m)
μ = absolute dynamic viscosity (Pa·s or N.s/m2)

Type II: Flocculent Particle Settling

This is the settling of flocculant particles in dilute suspensions → flocculant
sedimentation. Particles flocculate during sedimentation. There is interaction
between neighbouring particles. Consequently, particles settle and coalesce
with other particles resulting in an increase of particles size and velocity.
Particles constantly changing – because of inter-particle collision.

• Size, shape and specific gravity constantly changing

• Settling velocity constantly changing

Flocculent settling occurs during:

• Alum or iron coagulation
• Primary Sedimentation basins
• Settling tanks in trickling filtration

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Figure 1.10. Type 2 (Flocculent) particle settling (Source: Davis, 2010)

Example 1.3
Find the terminal settling velocity of a spherical discrete particle with diameter
0.5 mm and specific gravity of 1.65 settling through water at 200C.

Solution
At T = 20 0C →  = 998.2 kg/m3;  = 1.002*10-3 Ns/m2 (Table 1.5)

(a) First: Assume the flow is laminar (use Stoke’s Law)

vs = =
(
g (  s −  )d 2 9.81(2650 − 1000) 0.5 *10 −3 )
2

= 0.22 m / s
18 (
18 1.002 *10 −6 )
vs d 1000 * 0.22 * 0.50 x10 −3
Re = = = 110 → Re >1 (transition) (not ok)
 1.002 *10 −3
b) Calculate CD and vs for transition zone & check Re

24 3 24 3
CD = + 0.5 + 0.34 = + + 0.34 = 0.84
Re Re 110 1100.5
Apply Newton’s Law

vs =
4 g (  s −  )d
=
(
4 * 9.81(2650 − 1000) * 0.5 *10 −3 )
= 0.11 m / s
3C D 3 *1000 * 0.84

(c) Solving again,

Vs = 0.11 → Re = 55 → Re >1 → transition flow (Ok)

→ CD = 1.18 → Vs = 0.10 m/s

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Design of Rectangular Basins
Table 1.4 presents the typical dimensions of sedimentation tanks. The typical
rectangular channel is presented in Figure 1.10.
______________________________________________________
Description Dimensions
Range Typical
______________________________________________________
Rectangular
Depth, m 3-5 3.5
Length, m 15-90 25-40
Width, m 3-24 6-10
Circular
Diameter, m 4-60 12-45
Depth, m 3-5 4.5

Bottom Slope, mm/m 60-160 80

______________________________________________________

Table 1.4. Typical dimensions of sedimentation tanks

Rectangular basins have five zones:

• Inlet (influent) Zone → distribute flow uniformly across the inlet to the tank
• Settling Zone
– largest portion of the sedimentation basin.
– provides the calm area necessary for the suspended particles to settle
• Sludge Zone
– located at the bottom of the tank, provides a storage area for the sludge
before it is removed for additional treatment or disposal.
• Outlet (effluent) zone
– provide a smooth transition from the sedimentation zone to the outlet
from the tank. This area of the tank also controls the depth of water in
the basin

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Figure 1.11. Rectangular sedimentation basin zones

Inlet zone:
• Diffuser wall between the two tanks: flocculation & settling. It is used to
reduce the velocity and spread the flow evenly. Placed approximately 2 m
downstream of the inlet pipe (Figure 1.12). Port velocities = 0.20 to 0.30 m/s
for sufficient headlosses. Holes are about 0.10 to 0.20 m in diameter. Spacing
of holes: 0.25 to 0.60 m apart.

Figure 1.12. Diffuser walls for rectangular channels

• Pipe connection between two tanks: flocculation and settling. The velocity
in the pipe should not be too low (settling of flocs) or not too high (breaking of
flocs). The recommended permissible velocity to maintain floc in suspension is
from 0.15 – 0.6 m/s.

Settling Zone
• Mainly depends on the following design parameters:
o Settling characteristics of the suspended matter
o Surface loading (over flowrate) (Vo)
o Width / Length ratio OR diameter
o Detention time

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 Overflow rate (Vo) is calculated as:
Flow Rate (m3 / s)
Overflow Rate =
settling surface area (m 2 )

• Design criteria
o Overflow rate: 40 – 70 m3/d.m1. It can reach 150 (maximum surface
loading)
o Side water depth (SWD): 3 – 5 m
o Maximum Length:
▪ 30 m (wind constraint)
▪ 60 m (chain-and-flight)
▪ ≥80 -90 m (traveling bridge)
o Width:
▪ 6 m maximum per train (chain-and-flight)
▪ 24 m maximum = 3 trains per drive (chain-and-flight)
▪ 30 m maximum (traveling bridge).
o Width -to-length (W:L) ratio : 1:4 to 1:8
▪ preferred value: ≥ 1:6
o Depth-to-length (D:L) ratio: 1:15 (minimum).
o Horizontal mean velocity: 0.005 - 0.018 m/s.
o Reynolds Number: < 20 000
o Froude Number: > 10-5
o Detention period: 3 – 4 h (plain sedimentation) & 2 - 1.5 h (coagulated
sedimentation)

Turbulence checking:
• Reynold’s number – for spherical discrete particles calculated as:
Vh Rh Vh Rh
Re = =
  (1.11a)
• Reynold’s number – for non-spherical particles

(1.11b)
The shape factor () is mostly 0.85. As per Kawamura (2000)
recommendation, Re < 20 000 to avoid turbulence.

Check back mixing

• Froude Number

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 Vh2
Fr =
gRh (1.12)
Fr > 105 to avoid back mixing of the particles

Sludge zone:
• Depth:
– 0.6 - 1.0 m – for sludge accumulation & sludge removal equipment.
– If the overflow rate design is based on pilot studies, then the depth of the
pilot settling column used to develop the data may be selected as the
depth of the tank. In this case an additional 0.6 to 1 m is added to the
column depth to account for the sludge zone
• Slope:
– bottom is slightly sloped - to facilitate sludge scraping
– bottom of the tank is sloped (1 – 8%) toward a sludge hopper at the head
end of the tank → to facilitate sludge removal
– at least 1:600 (= 1.7%) →if mechanical equipment is used to facilitate
sludge scraping
• Sludge collector speed: 0.3 – 1.2 m/min.

Outlet zone:
• composed of launders running parallel to the length of the tank.
• Weir channels are used. Weir length: 1/3 – ½ length of basin
• Checked by weir loading (Q/A):
– Launder weir loading: 140 – 320 m3/d.m. Maximum 250 m3/d.m
• Large weir loading → resuspension of particles settled near to effluent launders
• Effluent weirs → placed as far from the inlet as possible
• to increase weir length (i.e to decrease weir loading) → double-sided weirs can
be used
• Typical weirs → 90o V notch metal plates bolted onto the effluent collection
through

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 • Design Checklist:
o Find surface area
o Redundancy: Select number of tanks
o Select a trial width for calculation
o Check width-to-length (W:L) ratio
o Select a trial depth (SWD)
o Check depth-to-length (H:L) ratio
o Check Reynolds Number
o Check Froude Number
o Design launders

Example 1.4
Design pre‐sedimentation tanks to be used to remove grit and sand from a river water
that is used to produce 20000 m3/d drinking water. Use the overflow rate of 31
m3/d.m1. Use two tanks.

Solution
Overflow rate (given)
vo = vs = 3.59 *10-4 m / s = 31 m / d = 31 m3 / m 2 d
Flow/tank = Q/2 = 20 000/2 = 10 000 → As = 10 000/31 = 321.5 m2

Select width to length ratio = 1:4 (minimum W:L)

A = w *4W = 321.5 → w = 8.98 m, L = 35.92 m (Take w = 9 and L = 36)

Assume detention time (t) = 3 hrs → H = Vo*t = (3*31)/24 = 3.9 m

Vh = Q/(WxH)= (10 000/(24*60))/(9*3.9) = 0.198 m/min

Take weir loading ratio = 250m3/m.d

Lweir = Q/Wload = 10000/250 = 40m.

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Learning Activity 1.3
1. Repeat example 2 using circular tank.
2. Note: the maximum tank diameter is 40 m

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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1.6 Filtration Processes
Filtration process is the final step in removing solid particles. It is a solid-liquid
separation technique. Filtration is defined as a process of passing water through a
porous medium (usually a bed of sand) in order to remove suspended or colloidal
matter by retaining it in the pores of the filtering medium or at the surface of the filter.
Figure 1.13 presents filtration systems at Bronkhorstspruit WTW.

Filtration is used to remove turbidity to required levels. Filtration removes those

particles that are too small to be effectively removed during sedimentation. It assist
significantly by reducing the load on the disinfection process thereby increasing
disinfection efficiency. Low turbidity levels are required for effective disinfection of
the water and to remove all traces of murkiness from the water after the flotation
process.

Particulates removed may be those:

• already present in the source water and/or
• generated during the previous treatment processes: coagulation, flocculation
and/or softening

Figure 1.13. Filtration system at Bronkhorstspruit WTW

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Mechanisms of Filtration

Principal mechanisms of removal of material within the granular bed filtration are:

• Straining
• Sedimentation
• Impaction
• Interception
• Adhesion
• adsorption – chemical or physical
• Flocculation
• Biological growth

Refer the standard text book (Davis, 2010) for the different mechanisms of filtration.

Filter Classification
• Based on media type:
o Monomedia – sand or coal (called anthracite),
o dual media -
o multimedia

• Based on Filtration rate:

o Slow sand filter,
o rapid sand filter,
o high-rate filters.

• Filtration rate control:

o Gravity filters,
o Pressure filters.

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Dual–media filter beds usually employ anthracite and sand. Other materials are
mostly used, such as activated carbon and sand. Granular activated carbon are
preferred because of its advantages:

• it provides excellent mechanical filtration of particulate matter,

• it removes organic compounds which can cause taste and odour problems.

Multimedia filter beds generally use anthracite, sand & garnet. Other materials are
mostly used such as activated carbon, sand and garnet. Garnet - generic term for
referring to several different minerals – silicates of iron, aluminum and calcium
mixtures. Its specific gravity range from 3.6 - 4.1.

The main advantages of multimedia filters compared to mono–medium filters are:

• Longer filtration runs,

• Higher filtration rates, and
• The ability to filter a water with higher turbidity

In this lecture, more discussion will be made about slow sand filters (SSF) and rapid
sand filters (RSF) systems only.

Figure 1.14. Types of filter media

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Learning Activity 1.4
1. Discuss the difference between conventional/traditional filtration and direct
filtration processes.
2. Read the different mechanisms of particle removal during filtration process

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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Sand filtration is a simple process in which the water is allowed to filter through a
layer of sand in a specially constructed container. In the filtration process the small
remaining floc particles are removed by the sand grains and are retained in the bed of
sand, while clean water flows out from the bottom of the sand bed.

Slow Sand Filters (SSF)

SSF are only monomedia type. SSF comprise of sand bed (about 1-2 m deep), gravel,
collector pipes, etc (Figure 1.15). Usually a number of them per treatment plant for
redundancy. Relatively simple operation and no chemicals are required. Typical low
loading rate: 0.1 - 0.2 m/hr and thus rarely used in municipal water treatment systems.
It uses the mechanisms of physical straining and biological degradation. Uses the
principle of percolation of water in the soil.

Figure 1.15. Configuration of Slow sand filter

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Learning Activity 1.5
1. Discuss the mechanism of biological growth in slow sand filters.
2. Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of slow sand filters

Provide your answer on the space provided below

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Rapid Sand Filters (RSF)
RSF may be single media, dual media or multimedia. A RSF is less deep compared to
SSF, with typical thinness from 0.5–1.0m. RSF are common type in municipal water
treatment systems. Much higher loading rates than SSF, typically in the range of 5 to
32 m/hr (120 to 360 m3/d.m2). After a period of operation, the filter is cleaned by
backwashing with an upward flow of water. Time until cleaning is a matter of hours,
not days. That means the filter has to be back-washed at intervals of a few hours.
Backwashing takes about 10-15 min once per day by pumping clean water backwards
through the filter. Typical RSF with backwash processes are illustrated in Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16. Slow Sand Filters with backwash process

Operation of RSF are on the principle of sedimentation. Smaller particles would pass
though, so coagulation prior to filtration is mandatory. The duration for filter runs is
set between 48–72 hours depending on the quality and quantity of the water being
filtered. This ensures that the remaining turbidity is 0.5 NTU or below. Must design to
handle flow with one filter out of service. That means a number of RSF are used in a
single filtration treatment as a requirement for redundancy.

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Hydraulics of SSF
The headloss through a clean stratified-sand filter with uniform porosity described by
Rose (1945) serves as an example for illustration:

1.067(va ) 2 D (C D )( f )
4 
hL =
( )( g )( ) (d g )
(1.13)

d g = (d1d 2 )
0.5
(1.14)

Where,

hL= frictional headloss through the filter (m)

va = approach velocity (also known as face velocity, filtration rate, or
loading rate ) ( m/s or m2 /s. m2 of surface area)
d = depth of filter sand, m
CD = drag coefficient
f = mass fraction of sand particles of diameter, d
dg = geometric mean diameter of sand grains, m
φ = shape factor
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s
ε = porosity

Fair and Geyer (1954) developed the following relationship to predict the depth of
the expanded bed:

De = (1 −  )( D) 
f
(1 −  e ) (1.15)

Where, De = depth of the expanded bed (m),

εe = porosity of expanded bed

The conditions during backwash are turbulent. A representative model equation for
estimating εe is that given by Richardson and Zaki (1954):

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 0.2245 Re0.1
v 
 e =  b 
 vs  (1.16)

vs d 60
Re =
 (1.17)
Where,
εe = porosity of the expanded bed
vs = settling velocity (m/s), obtained from Figure 1.17.
vb = backwash velocity, m/s
 = kinematic viscosity
Re = Reynold’s number

Figure 1.17. Particle settling estimation chart for different specific gravity (S.G)

Number of Filters
• Design guide:
– For smaller plants (Q< 8,000 m3 /d) → min. number of filters is 1.

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 – For larger plants (Q > 8,000 m3 /d)→ min. number of filters is 4.
• A rule-of-thumb estimate for larger plants may be made using Kawamura's
(2000) suggestion:

N = 0.0195(Q )
0.5
(1.18)
N = total number of filters
Q = maximum design flow rate (m3 /d)

Area of Filter bed:

Q
A=
Nq (1.19)
Where,
A= area of a bed (m2)
Q = maximum day flow rate (m3 /d)
N = number of beds
q = filtration rates (m3/d.m2)

• Filters are generally composed of two cells per filter box to form a bed.
Generally, the gullet bisects the box to form the two cells.

• Width of filter box < 6m

• Depth = 4 to 8 m

• Suggested L:W ratio of a cell = 2:1 to 4:1

Example 4 (11.5 Davis)

In continuing the design of rapid sand filter, determine the area of each individual
filter and the plan (horizontal) dimensions of a filter box. The maximum day design
flow rate is 18,400 m3/d. Use the filtration loading rate of 216 m3 /d·m1.

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Solution
a) The initial estimate of number of filters is 4 (Q >8,000 m3/d).

b) Number of filters (Equ. 11-17): Kawamura's (2000) suggestion

N = 0.0195(18400) 0.5 = 2.65

• design guidance for plants with a design capacity greater than 8,000 m3 /d is a
minimum of four filters

• 4 filters provide more flexibility in operation

c) Area of the bed

Q 18400 m 3 / d
A= = = 21.3 m 2 / filter
(
Nq (4 filters ) 216 m / d .m
3 2
)
c) Redundancy capacity for the maximum day with one filter out of service must be
provided. The choices are:

1. Increase the number of beds to five and reduce the area.

2. Increase the number of beds to six and reduce the area.

3. Maintain the number of beds at four but make the area larger.

- This allows for a lower q during average conditions and meets the
design loading rate with one bed out of service on the maximum day.

4. Switch to a dual-media filter that would allow a higher loading rate.

Because of construction and operational considerations, filters are built in pairs.

Thus, alternative (1) is eliminated. Alternative (2) would be acceptable but would
have a capital cost 50% greater than the four-filter system. Without switching to
dual media, option 3 offers the most economical alternative.

e) If each filter is increased by 1/3, the filtration rate with 1 filter out of service will
be:

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 18400 m 3 / d
q= = 216.0 m 3 / d .m 2
(
(3 filters ) (1.333) (21.3m 2
)
Therefore, for a trial calculation, assume A of 1 filter = (1.3333)(21.3 m ) = 28.4
m2

f) As a trial, select a total width of two cells = 5.2 m. Each cell has a width of 1.6 m.
The length of each cell is then:

28.4 m 2
L= = 5.5 m
(2)((2.6m )
This design meets the two design criteria:

• Cell width (5.2) is < 6 m and

• L:W ratio (1.1:1) is within the recommended range of 2:1 to 4:1.

g) An assumption of a gullet width of 0.6 m yields the plan view sketched below.

Comments:
1. There are several lengths and widths that will meet the design criteria. The Solver
Excel spreadsheet can be used to determine the different possible values of L & W.
2. Vertical dimensions of the filter box depends on the media, underdrain and
headloss through the filter. The depth of the filter box would be determined.

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1.7 Disinfection Processes
Disinfection occurs in 2 phases: Primary and Secondary disinfection.

Primary disinfection: After filtration water is set to have completed the purification
process, the last stage it goes through is disinfection which is achieved through break
point chlorination. A concentration of between 0.8-1.5 mg/l is maintained killing all
organisms in the water. The microbiological content is determined by Standard plate
Count being less than 30 colony forming units/ml.

Secondary disinfection: Monochloramine also known as combined available chlorine

is also used for water disinfection. It is formed when HOCl is added to through
machines which monitor the dosages into water that contains a small amount of
ammonia. The ammonia reacts with HOCl to form mono-chloramine, NH2Cl. It is
much less effective as a disinfectant than HOCl (the same order of effectiveness as
chlorite ion). However, it has the advantage of being much more stable in water than
free available chlorine.

Chlorine does not remain active in water for more than 6-8 hours therefor an ideal
disinfectant. The ratio used is not less than 4:1 on a mass bases, the free available
chlorine prevents bacteria growing in the system pipeline or municipal storage
reservoir.

The concentrations of mono-chloramine leaving the pump station are maintained at

0.8-1.2 mg/l ensuring that a minimum chlorine residual of 0.2mg/l in the water when it
enters municipal reticulation

Types of water disinfectants in potable water treatment are:

• chlorine,
• chlorine dioxide,
• ozone,
• peroxone,

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 • bromine,
• bromine chloride,
• iodine
• ultraviolet radiation

Disinfection mechanisms:
• Damage to the cell wall (Ozone, Chlorine).
• Alteration of the cell permeability (phenolic compounds).
• Alteration of the colloidal nature of the protoplasm (heat, radiation)
• Alteration of the organism DNA (UV irradiation).
• Inhibition of enzyme activity (oxidizing agents such as chlorine).

In this unit, Chlorination process will be discussed. Refer standard text book (Davis,
2010) for the other disinfection processes.

CHLORINATION
Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant because it is effective at low
concentrations, cheap and forms residual if applied in sufficient dosage. The term
chlorination is often used synonymously with disinfection.

Two distinct goals of chlorination:

• kill majority of organisms in water.
• provide residual disinfection capability to prevent growth of organisms in
distribution system.

Factors affecting chlorinating processes:

• Disinfectant dose and contact time between the disinfectant and the
microorganisms.
• Turbidity should not exceed 0.5 NTU - particulates can shield micro
organisms.
• Organic matter and ammonia (they react with disinfectants).

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 • pH (may change chemical form of disinfectant e.g. HOCl, OCl-).
• Temperature (diffusion and reaction rate).
• Concentration and chemistry of the disinfectant.
• Properties of pathogens.

Dosage of Chlorination
The dosage of chlorination is explained based on the Chlorination process at
Bronkhorstprint WTW. Only 2 x 925 kg gas cylinders are connected to the
chlorinators, which are both set to dose at 3 kg/h. Dosing at this rate, at least 5 x 925
kg gas cylinders should be kept on site to allow 30 days storage capacity. About 6 x
925 kg Chlorine gas cylinders are delivered every month to the WTW. The full gas
cylinders and empty are stored outside the chlorine room as shown in figure 18. On the
second visit there were 6 full chlorine gas cylinders and 2 empty cylinders lying
outside the chlorine room (Figure 1.18).

Two water recirculation pumps for chlorination are provided with 2 chlorinators both
on duty. There are 2 Chlorine gas scales used to monitor gas levels. The scales are in
good working condition and are serviced regularly. The full chlorine gas cylinders
should be stored in the provided chlorine gas stand.

Figure 1.18. Chlorination equipment at Bronkhorstspruit WTW

Dissinfection Byproducts of Chlorine

Chlorine has Disinfection byproducts (DBP). The DBP of Chlorine produced by the
reaction of disinfectants with:
• Mainly organic compounds or natural organic matter (NOM).
• Bromide ion.
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Both HOCl & OCl- react with reducing NOM (natural organic matter) producing
trihalomethanes (THMs) including:
• Chloroform (CHCl3) ,
• Bromoform (CHBr3)
• Bromodichloromethane (CHCl2Br),
• Dibromochloromethane (CHClBr2).

Another dangerous DBPs is the halogenated acetic acids (HAAs) as they are toxic
and do not degrade easily, and may cause cancer. THMs and HAAs can be minimized
by removing the organic matter before disinfection.

Refer text book (Davis, 2010) for the chemical reactions of Chlorine.

Breakpoint Chlorination
The process of breakpoint chlorination is illustrated in Figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19. Breakpoint chlorination (source: Davis, 2010)

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As illustrated in Figure 1.19, chlorine reacts with the substances existing in water. The
Figure above shows the stages of these reactions. The chlorine dosage is presented on
the x-axis and the residual chlorine is presented on the y-axis.

When chlorine is added to water, it reacts first with the reducing compounds (such as
Fe+2, Mn+2, NO2-), and the chlorine will be reduced to the none effective chloride ion
Cl- (from zero to point A on the diagram).

As more chlorine is added to water, it will react with NH3 to form chloramines as
shown in the chlorine chemistry (from point A to B). As more and more chlorine is
added, some chloramines are oxidized to nitrogen gas and the chlorine is reduced to
the none-effective Cl- ion (from point B to C). Continued addition of chlorine will
produce free available chlorine (at point C). Point C is called the BREAK POINT.

The chlorine added is called the DOSAGE. The amount of chlorine used to oxidize the
materials existing in water is called the DEMAND.

RESIDUAL = DOSAGE – DEMAND

The residual between points A to C is called COMBINED RESIDUAL because the

chlorine is in the form of chloramines. From point C & up, a FREE CHLORINE
RESIDUAL start to appear in water in addition to the combined residual. The free
Chlorine residual is composed of un-reacted forms of chlorine (HOCl and OCl-).

Advantages of Chlorine:
• Readily available as gas, liquid, or powder.
• Cheap.
• Easy to apply due to its high solubility.
• It leaves residual in solution.
• Toxic to harmful micro-organisms.

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Learning Activity 1.6
• Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of other disinfection methods:
o Ozone
o Chlorine dioxide.
o Ozone.
o Ultraviolet irradiation.

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References
1. Davis, ML. 2010/13. Water and Wastewater Engineering – Design Principles
and Practice (Textbook).
2. Lin S.D. Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual (3rd Ed).
3. McGhee, T.J. Water Supply and Sewerage (6th or latest Ed.)
4. McGhee, TJ. & Steel, E. W. (1991). Water supply and sewerage (Vol. 6):
McGraw-
5. MJ Hammer . Water and Wastewater Technology (Latest Edition)
6. Wiesner, M. R., O’Melia, C. R., and Cohon, J. L. (1987), Optimal water
treatment plant design. J. Environ. Engrg. Div., ASCE, 113(3), 567.
7. Wu MY. 2013. Optimal Design of the Water Treatment Plants (chapter 2).
InTech Open Publisher.

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