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Chapter 7

Muscular System
Lecture Outline

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Types of Muscles
Skeletal
• attached to bones
• striated
• voluntarily controlled
Cardiac
• located in the heart
• striated
• involuntarily controlled
Smooth
• Located in blood vessels, hollow organs
• Non-striated
• involuntarily controlled
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The Muscular System

Functions
1. Movement
2. Maintain posture

3. Respiration

4. Production of body heat

5. Communication

6. Heart beat

7. Contraction of organs and vessels Figure 7.1

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Properties of Muscles
Contractility - the ability of muscle to shorten
forcefully, or contract
Excitability - the capacity of muscle to respond to
a stimulus
Extensibility - the ability to be stretched beyond it
normal resting length and still be able to contract
Elasticity - the ability of the muscle to recoil to its
original resting length after it has been stretched

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Skeletal Muscle Structure 1

Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, with its

associated connective tissue, constitutes
approximately 40% of body weight.
Skeletal muscle is so named because many of
the muscles are attached to the skeletal system.
Some skeletal muscles attach to the skin or
connective tissue sheets.

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Skeletal Muscle Structure 2

Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle

because transverse bands, or striations, can be
seen in the muscle under the microscope.
Individual skeletal muscles, such as the biceps
brachii, are complete organs, as a result of being
comprised of several tissues: muscle, nerve, and
connective tissue.

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Connective Tissue Coverings

Each skeletal muscle is surrounded by a
connective tissue sheath called the epimysium.
A skeletal muscle is subdivided into groups of
muscle cells, termed fascicles.
Each fascicle is surrounded by a connective
tissue covering, termed the perimysium.
Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is surrounded by
a connective tissue covering, termed the
endomysium.
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Muscle Fiber Structure 1

A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical cell, with

several nuclei located at its periphery.
Muscle fibers range in length 1 cm to 30 cm and
are generally 0.15 mm in diameter.
Skeletal muscle fibers contain several nuclei that
are located at the periphery of the fiber.
The sarcolemma (cell membrane) has many
tubelike inward folds, called transverse tubules,
or T tubules.
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Muscle Fiber Structure 2

T tubules occur at regular intervals along the muscle

fiber and extend into the center of the muscle fiber.
The T tubules are associated with enlarged portions
of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum called the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
The enlarged portions are called terminal cisternae.
T tubules connect the sarcolemma to the terminal
cisternae to form a muscle triad.

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Muscle Fiber Structure 3

The sarcoplasmic reticulum has a relatively high

concentration of Ca2+, which plays a major role in
muscle contraction.
The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the
sarcoplasm, which contains many bundles of
protein filaments.
Bundles of protein filaments are called myofibrils.
Myofibrils consist of the myofilaments, actin and
myosin.
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Structure of Skeletal Muscle

Figure 7.2
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The Sarcomere 1

The sarcomere is the basic structural and

functional unit of a skeletal muscle because it is
the smallest portion of a skeletal muscle
capable of contracting.
Z disks form a network of protein fibers that
both serve as an anchor for actin myofilaments
and separate one sarcomere from the next.
A sarcomere extends from one Z disk to the
next Z disk.
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The Sarcomere 2

The organization of actin and myosin

myofilaments gives skeletal muscle its striated
appearance and gives it the ability to contract.
The myofilaments slide past each other, causing
the sarcomeres to shorten.
Each sarcomere consists of two light-staining
bands separated by a dark-staining band.

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The Sarcomere 3

Light bands, consist only of actin, and are called

I bands that extends toward the center of the
sarcomere to the ends of the myosin
myofilaments.
Dark staining bands are called A bands, that
extend the length of the myosin myofilaments.
Actin and myosin myofilaments overlap for
some distance on both ends of the A band; this
overlap causes the contraction.
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The Sarcomere 4

Actin myofilaments are made up of three

components: actin, troponin, and tropomyosin.
Troponin molecules have binding sites for Ca2+ and
tropomyosin filaments block the myosin myofilament
binding sites on the actin myofilaments.
Myosin myofilaments, or thick myofilaments,
resemble bundles of tiny golf clubs.
Myosin heads have ATP binding sites, ATPase and
attachment spots for actin.

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Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Figure 7.3
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Excitability of Muscle Fibers

The electrical charge difference across the cell
membrane of an unstimulated cell is called the resting
membrane potential.
Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting membrane potential,
but can also perform action potentials.
The resting membrane potential is due to the inside of
the membrane being negatively charged in comparison
to the outside of the membrane being positively
charged.
Action potentials are due to the membrane having gated
channels.
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Resting Membrane Potential 1

The resting membrane potential exists because of:

• The concentration of K+ being higher on the inside of
the cell membrane and the concentration of Na+ being
higher on the outside
• The presence of many negatively charged molecules,
such as proteins, inside the cell that are too large to
exit the cell
• The presence of leak protein channels in the
membrane that are more permeable to K+ than it is to
Na+
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Resting Membrane Potential 2

Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and K+ tends to

diffuse out.
In order to maintain the resting membrane
potential, the sodium-potassium pump
recreates the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by
pumping Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell.

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Resting Membrane Potential 3

Figure 7.4 (1)

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Action Potential 1

To initiate a muscle contraction, the resting

membrane potential must be changed to an
action potential.
Changes in the resting membrane potential
occur when gated cell membrane channels open.
In a skeletal muscle fiber, a nerve impulse
triggers gated Na+ channels to open and Na+
diffuses into the cell down its concentration
gradient and toward the negative charges inside
the cell.
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Action Potential 2

The entry of Na+ causes the inside of the cell

membrane to become more positive than when the
cell is at resting membrane potential.
This increase in positive charge inside the cell
membrane is called depolarization.
If the depolarization changes the membrane
potential to a value called threshold, an action
potential is triggered.
An action potential is a rapid change in charge
across the cell membrane.
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Action Potential 3

Depolarization during the action potential is when

the inside of the cell membrane becomes more
positively charged than the outside of the cell
membrane.
Near the end of depolarization, the positive
charge causes gated Na+ channels to close and
gated K+ channels to open.
Opening of gated K+ channels starts repolarization
of the cell membrane.
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Action Potential 4

Repolarization is due to the exit of K+ from the

cell.
The outward diffusion of K+ returns the cell to
its resting membrane conditions and the action
potential ends.
In a muscle fiber, an action potential results in
muscle contraction.

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Depolarization
change in charges
inside becomes more + and outside more –
Na+ channels open

Figure 7.4 (2)

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Repolarization
Na+ channels close
change back to resting potential

Figure 7.4 (3)

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Ion Channels and Action Potentials

Figure 7.4
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Nerve Supply 1

A motor neuron is a nerve cell stimulates muscle

cells.
A neuromuscular junction is a synapse where a
the fiber of a nerve connects with a muscle fiber.
A synapse refers to the cell-to-cell junction
between a nerve cell and either another nerve cell
or an effector cell, such as in a muscle or a gland.
A motor unit is a group of muscle fibers that a
motor neuron stimulates.
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Nerve Supply 2

A presynaptic terminal is the end of a neuron cell

axon fiber.
A synaptic cleft is the space between the
presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic membrane.
The postsynaptic membrane is the muscle fiber
membrane (sarcolemma).
A synaptic vesicle is a vesicle in the presynaptic
terminal that stores and releases neurotransmitter
chemicals.
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Nerve Supply 3

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that stimulate

or inhibit postsynaptic cells.
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that
stimulates skeletal muscles.

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Neuromuscular Junction

Figure 7.5
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Function of the
Neuromuscular Junction

Figure 7.6
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Muscle Contraction 1

1. An action potential travels down motor

neuron to presynaptic terminal causing Ca2+
channels to open.
2. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release
acetylcholine into synaptic cleft.
3. Acetylcholine binds to receptor sites on Na+
channels, Na+ channels open, and Na+ rushes
into postsynaptic terminal (depolarization).

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Muscle Contraction 2

4. Na+ causes sarcolemma and t-tubules to

increase the permeability of sarcoplasmic
reticulum which releases stored calcium.
5. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is attached to
actin.
6. Ca2+ binding to troponin causes tropomyosin
to move exposing attachment sites for myosin.
7. Myosin heads bind to actin.

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Muscle Contraction 3

8. ATP is released from myosin heads and

heads bend toward center of sarcomere.
9. Bending forces actin to slide over myosin.
10. Acetylcholinesterase (enzyme breaks down
acetylcholine) is released, Na+ channels
close, and muscle contraction stops.

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Skeletal Muscle Excitation 1

Figure 7.8 (1)

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Skeletal Muscle Excitation 2

Figure 7.8 (2,3)

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Skeletal Muscle Excitation 3

Figure 7.8 (4)

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Skeletal Muscle Excitation 4

Figure 7.8 (5,6)

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Skeletal Muscle Excitation 5

Figure 7.8 (6,7,8)

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Skeletal Muscle Excitation 6

Figure 7.8 (9)

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ATP and Muscle Contractions

Energy for muscle contractions is supplied by ATP
Energy is released as ATP → ADP + P
ATP is stored in myosin heads
ATP help form cross-bridge formation between
myosin and actin
New ATP must bind to myosin before cross-
bridge is released
Rigor mortis will occur when a person dies and
no ATP is available to release cross-bridges
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ATP Breakdown and
Cross-Bridge Movement

Figure 7.9
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Muscle Twitch 1

A muscle twitch is a single contraction of a muscle

fiber in response to a stimulus.
A muscle twitch has three phases: latent phase,
contraction phase, and relaxation phase.
The latent phase is the time between the application
of a stimulus and the beginning of contraction.
The contraction phase is the time during which the
muscle contracts and the relaxation phase is the
time during which the muscle relaxes.

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Muscle Twitch 2

Figure 7.10
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Summation and Recruitment

In summation, individual muscles contract more
forcefully.
Tetanus is a sustained contraction that occurs
when the frequency of stimulation is so rapid
that no relaxation occurs.
Recruitment is the stimulation of several motor
units.

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Multiple-Wave Summation

Figure 7.11
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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types 1

Slow twitch fibers

• contract slowly
• fatigue slowly
• have a considerable amount of myoglobin
• use aerobic respiration
• are dark in color
• used by long distance runners

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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types 2

Fast twitch fibers

• contract quickly
• fatigue quickly
• use anaerobic respiration
• energy from glycogen
• light color
• used by sprinters

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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types 3

A muscle has a blend of types, with one type

dominating. Humans have both types of fibers
The distribution of fibers is genetically
determined

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Energy for Muscle Contractions 1

Muscle fibers are very energy-demanding cells

whether at rest or during any form of exercise.
This energy comes from either aerobic (with O2)
or anaerobic (without O2) ATP production
ATP is derived from four processes in skeletal
muscle.

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Energy for Muscle Contractions 2

1. Aerobic production of ATP during most

exercise and normal conditions.
2. Anaerobic production of ATP during
intensive short-term work
3. Conversion of a molecule called creatine
phosphate to ATP
4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one
AMP (adenosine monophosphate) during
heavy exercise
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Muscle Fatigue 1

Fatigue is a temporary state of reduced work

capacity.
Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be
worked to the point of structural damage to
them and their supportive tissues.

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Muscle Fatigue 2

Mechanisms of fatigue include:

• Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either an
increased ATP consumption or a decreased ATP
production
• Oxidative stress, which is characterized by the
buildup of excess reactive oxygen species (ROS;
free radicals)
• Local inflammatory reactions

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Types of Contractions 1

There are two types of muscle contractions:

isometric and isotonic.
The isometric contraction has an increase in
muscle tension, but no change in length.
The isotonic contraction has a change in
muscle length with no change in tension.

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Types of Contractions 2

Concentric contractions are isotonic

contractions in which muscle tension increases
as the muscle shortens.
Eccentric contractions are isotonic contractions
in which tension is maintained in a muscle, but
the opposing resistance causes the muscle to
lengthen.

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Muscle Tone
Muscle tone is the constant tension produced by
body muscles over long periods of time.
Muscle tone is responsible for keeping the back and
legs straight, the head in an upright position, and
the abdomen from bulging.
Muscle tone depends on a small percentage of all
the motor units in a muscle being stimulated at any
point in time, causing their muscle fibers to contract
tetanically and out of phase with one another.

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Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle cells are non-striated small,
spindle-shaped muscle cells, usually with one
nucleus per cell.
The myofilaments are not organized into
sarcomeres.
The cells comprise organs controlled
involuntarily, except the heart.
Neurotransmitter substances, hormones, and
other substances can stimulate smooth muscle.
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Cardiac Muscle 1

Cardiac muscle cells are long, striated, and

branching, with usually only one nucleus per cell.
Cardiac muscle is striated as a result of the
sarcomere arrangement.
Cardiac muscle contraction is autorhythmic.

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Cardiac Muscle 2

Cardiac muscle cells are connected to one

another by specialized structures that include
desmosomes and gap junctions called
intercalated disks.
Cardiac muscle cells function as a single unit in
that action potential in one cardiac muscle cell
can stimulate action potentials in adjacent cells.

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Skeletal Muscles 1

Figure 7.14a
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Skeletal Muscles 2

Figure 7.14b
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Skeletal Muscle Anatomy 1

A tendon connects skeletal muscle to bone.

Aponeuroses are broad, sheetlike tendons.
A retinaculum is a band of connective tissue that
holds down the tendons at each wrist and ankle.
Skeletal muscle attachments have an origin and
an insertion, with the origin being the
attachment at the least mobile location.
The insertion is the end of the muscle attached
to the bone undergoing the greatest movement.
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Skeletal Muscle Anatomy 2

The part of the muscle between the origin and

the insertion is the belly.
A group of muscles working together are called
agonists.
A muscle or group of muscles that oppose
muscle actions are termed antagonists.

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Muscle Attachment

Figure 7.13
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Nomenclature 1

Muscles are named according to:

1. Location – a pectoralis muscle is located in
the chest.
2. Size – the size could be large or small, short or
long.
3. Shape - the shape could be triangular,
quadrate, rectangular, or round.
4. Orientation of fascicles – fascicles could run
straight (rectus) or at an angle (oblique).
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Nomenclature 2

5. Origin and insertion. The sternocleidomastoid

has its origin on the sternum and clavicle and
its insertion on the mastoid process of the
temporal bone.
6. Number of heads. A biceps muscle has two
heads (origins), and a triceps muscle has
three heads (origins).
7. Function. Abductors and adductors are the
muscles that cause abduction and adduction
movements.
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Muscles of Mastication
Temporalis
Masseter
Pterygoids (two pairs)

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Muscles of Facial Expression
and Mastication

Figure 7.16
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Tongue and Swallowing Muscles

Figure 7.17
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Deep Neck and Back Muscles

Figure 7.18
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Thoracic Muscles
External intercostals:
• elevate ribs for inspiration
Internal intercostals:
• depress ribs during forced expiration
Diaphragm:
• moves during quiet breathing

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Muscles of the Thorax

Figure 7.19
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Abdominal Wall Muscles 1

Rectus abdominis:
• center of abdomen
• compresses abdomen
External abdominal oblique:
• sides of abdomen
• compresses abdomen

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Abdominal Wall Muscles 2

Internal abdominal oblique:

• compresses abdomen
Transverse abdominis:
• compresses abdomen

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Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall

Figure 7.20
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Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles 1

Trapezius:
• shoulders and upper back
• extends neck and head
Pectoralis major:
• chest
• elevates ribs

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Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles 2

Serratus anterior:
• between ribs
• elevates ribs
Deltoid:
• shoulder
• abductor or upper limbs

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Upper Limb Muscles 1

Triceps brachii:
• 3 heads
• extends elbow
Biceps brachii:
• “flexing muscle”
• flexes elbow and shoulder

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Upper Limb Muscles 2

Brachialis:
• flexes elbow
Latissimus dorsi:
• lower back
• extends shoulder

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Arm Muscles

Figure 7.23
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Forearm Muscles
Flexor longus
Flexor carpi radialis
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor digitorum profundus
Flexor digitorum superficialis
Pronator
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi radialis brevis
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Muscles of the Forearm

Figure 7.24
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Pelvic Floor Muscles 1

Levator ani
Ischiocavernosus
Bulbospongiosus
Deep transverse perineal
Superficial transverse perineal

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Pelvic Floor Muscles 2

Figure 7.21
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Muscles of Hips and Thighs

Iliopsoas:
• flexes hip
Gluteus maximus:
• buttocks
• extends hip and abducts thigh
Gluteus medius:
• Hip
• abducts and rotates thigh
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Muscles of the Upper Leg 1

The quadriceps femoris is comprised of 4 thigh muscles:

The rectus femoris:
• front of thigh
• extends knee and flexes hip
The vastus lateralis:
• extends knee
The vastus medialis:
• extends knee
The vastus intermedius:
• extends knee
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Muscles of the Upper Leg 2

Gracilis:
• adducts thigh and flexes knee
Biceps femoris, semimembranosus,
semitendinosus:
• Hamstring
• back of thigh
• flexes knee, rotates leg, extends hip

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Muscles of the Upper Leg 3

The rectus femoris:

• front of thigh
• extends knee and flexes hip
The vastus lateralis:
• extends knee
The vastus medialis:
• extends knee
The vastus intermedius:
• extends knee
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Muscles of the Hip and Thigh

Figure 7.26
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Muscles of Lower Leg

Tibialis anterior:
• front of lower leg
• inverts foot
Gastrocnemius:
• calf
• flexes foot and leg
Soleus:
• attaches to ankle
• flexes foot
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Lower Leg Muscles

Figure 7.28
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