實驗應力分析

Experimental Stress Analysis

一、課程簡介:

PART ONE Introduction to experimental stress/strain analysis

1. Why needs experimental stress analysis?

2. Direct measurement
3. Optical methods
4. Acoustical method
5. Electrical method
6. X-ray diffraction method
7. Thermoelastic method
8. Optical fiber method
7. Other emerging methods
 實驗應力分析
Experimental Stress Analysis
PART TWO Some measurement techniques in more details

1. Electrical Strain gage method

a. Theory of resistance strain gage

2. Optical fiber strain sensors

PART THREE Case Studies

 Why is ESA needed?
Why not use the more convenient finite element
analysis or other analytical/numerical analysis?
 Definition of Strain
lo : original length
lf : final length
 l : extension ( = lf – lo )

Absolute strain (extension):  l

 lf 
Natural strain (true strain): ln  
 lo 
Largrangian strain (engineering strain) :  l / lo

Eulerian strain :  l / lf
 Definition of Strain
lo : original length
lf : final length
 l : extension ( = lf – lo )

Most commonly used

Largrangian strain (engineering strain) :  l / lo
:
lo : gage length

As small a gage length as possible is usually

preferred for accurate measurement of strain.
 Effect of gage length on
experimental strain measurement

Usually smaller gage length give better

representation of the actual strain if the
latter is no uniformly distributed. As small
a gage length as possible is therefore
normally employed.
Factors to be consider when
choosing an ESA system
 Different techniques for ESA

 Direct Methods
 Mechanical Methods
 Electrical Methods
 Acoustical Methods
 Thermal Method
 Optical Methods
 Grid Method
(A direct measurement method)
Cartesian grid on a circular ring subjected to several levels of
diametral compression
Methods for laying grids
 Advantages and limitations of
the grid method
Advantages

Limitations
Mechanical Strain Gauges
Berry Strain Gauge
 Berry Strain Gauge
"National Institute of Standards and Technology Digital Collections, Gaithersburg, MD 20899"
http://nistdigitalarchives.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/p15421coll3/id/539/rec/7
Johansson extensometer
Huggenberger extensometer
 Whittemore Strain Gauge, invented
around 1938 at the National Bureau of
Standards

http://nistdigitalarchives.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15421coll3/id/393
Mechanical-Optical Gauges
Martens optical gauge
 Tuckerman Optical Strain Gages

https://nistdigitalarchives.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p15421coll3/id/568
 Capacitive
displacement sensors
Capacitive displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Capacitive displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Capacitive displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Capacitive displacement sensors
Differential Capacitive Sensors

https://www.eastsensor.com/blog/capacitance-differential-pressure-
transmitter-working-principle/

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
 Rotary capacitor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_capacitor#/media/Fil
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rotary_capacitor_Pi
e:Forgokondenzator_rajz_en.svg
onier.JPG
 Capacitive displacement sensors
Notes

 displacement measurements for rotational or translational

motions.
 Variable distance (d) sensors operate over a range of a few
millimeters
 Cross-sensitivity to temperature and humidity if the dielectric
is air, hence can be used for humidity and moisture sensing.
 Can easily be used at high and low temperatures.
 Capacitive sensors are also commonly used to measure
pressure.
 “Condenser” microphones measure changes in air pressure
of incoming sound waves
Inductive displacement
sensors
 Inductive displacement sensors
A basic inductive sensor consists of a magnetic circuit
made from a ferromagnetic core with a coil wound on it.

The coil acts as a source of magnetomotive force that drives the

flux through the magnetic circuit and the air gap. The presence of
the air gap causes a large increase in circuit reluctance and a
corresponding decrease in the flux. Hence, a small variation in the
air gap results in a measurable change in inductance.
http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
 Inductive displacement sensors
Variable-Differential Reluctance Sensor

A variable-differential reluctance sensor consists of an armature moving between 2

identical cores separated by a fixed distance. The armature moves in the air gap in
response to a mechanical input. This movement alters the reluctance of coils 1 and 2,
thus altering their inductive properties. This arrangement overcomes the problem of
nonlinearity inherent in single coil sensors.

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Inductive displacement sensors

Magnesyn (angular displacement sensor)

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Inductive displacement sensors
Variable-Coupling Transformer

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Inductive displacement sensors
Linear Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
 Inductive displacement sensors
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

When the coil is in the central position, k1=k2 ⇒ VOUT=V1-V2=0

When the coil is is displaced x units, k1≠k2 ⇒ VOUT=(k1-k2)sin(ωt)
Positive or negative displacements are determined from the phase
of VOUT.
Inductive displacement sensors

http://www.rdpelectronics.com/displacement/lvdt/lvdt-principles.htm
Inductive displacement sensors

http://www.rdpelectronics.com/displacement/lvdt/lvdt-principles.htm
Inductive displacement sensors

http://www.rdpelectronics.com/displacement/lvdt/lvdt-principles.htm
Inductive displacement sensors
Linear Variable-Differential Transformer (LVDT)

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Inductive displacement sensors
LVDT Characteristics
Typical LVDTs run at 3 to 15V, and freq. 60 to 20000Hz
LVDTs can measure from 75 mm down to 0.1 mm
Due to small variations in the windings, a small
residual voltage appears at the output when the coil
is in the central position

Advantages of the LVDT over other displacement

sensors
No mechanical wear ensures a long life
DC versions with integrated oscillators are available
 Inductive displacement sensors
Rotary voltage differential transformer

Uex = excitation voltage, Uo = output voltage, 1 = excitation coil, 2 =

output coil, 3 = moving core or armature, 4 = sensing shaft.
http://zone.ni.com/devzone/conceptd.nsf/webmain/4C91CDBD4E3725F98625684E0057840E
 Potentiometers
displacement sensors
 Resistive displacement sensors
An electrically conductive wiper
that slides against a fixed
resistive element.
To measure displacement,
apotentiometer is typically
wired in a“voltage divider”
configuration.
A known voltage is applied to
the resistor ends. The contact
is attached to the moving
object of interest
The output voltage at the
contact is proportional to the
displacement.
Resistive displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Resistive displacement sensors
Resistive displacement sensors

Three types of potentiometer devices for

measuring displacement
 Potentiometer types
Turn counting dial
potentiometer
Linear motion
Multi turn Potentiometer
Resistive displacement sensors

String potentiometers

http://zone.ni.com/devzone/conceptd.nsf/webmain/F015C145C6B8658586256CD20069531B
Resistive displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
Resistive displacement sensors

http://bohr.physics.hku.hk/academic/courses/phys2234/06_Displacementvelocity.pdf
台中綠線捷運測試
台中綠線捷運測試
 台中綠線捷運測試
使用沙袋模擬AW3的載客情況。實際排列狀況如下圖。
台中綠線捷運測試
 Carlson Strain Meter

http://www.hoskinscientifique.com/uploadpdf/Instrumentation/rst/hoskin_Carlson%20Strain%20
Meters_47cc476392450.pdf

For 3D
strain tensor
https://irp-cdn.multiscreensite.com/c5a3b2fd//files/uploaded/image6d21.pdf

In 1930’s Roy Carlson developed embeddable resistive strain sensor that used
unbonded carbon steel wire. Two coils of the wire were installed on steel rods
connected to end anchors so that when the distance between the anchors was
subjected to change, one coil increased in length and the other decreased. The total
resistance of the two coils was used to measure temperature, while the ratio in
resistance was used to measure strain. The sensor packaging was filled with oil to
prevent penetration of humidity. They have shown excellent long-term stability, and
have been applied in numerous civil and geotechnical structures, including Hoover Dam.
displacement sensors
based on resistance
strain gage
Resistance
strain gauge