09-10 Reversible Processes and Open System Energy Balance

Engineering Thermodynamics
Lecture 9 Reversible Processes
Prof.B.Battsengel
GMIT
battsengel@gmit.edu.mn
Fall 2022/23
2.7 Reversible processes in closed systems:
Reversible, isothermal expansion (compression)
Isothermal Law of ideal gases:
nRT
V =
P
nRT
dV = −
2
dP
P
Work done by the system
! 2
nRT P2
W = dP = nRT ln
1 P P1
For an ideal gas, the internal energy

depends on temperature only
∆U = 0
Work done, if the process is reversible:
! V2
W =− P dV
V1
–
nRT
V =
P
nRT
dV = −
2
dP
P
! 2
nRT P2
W = dP = nRT ln <0
1 P P1
For an ideal gas, the internal energy

depends on temperature only
∆U = 0
! V2
W =− P dV
V1
–
nRT
V =
P
nRT
dV = −
2
dP
P
! 2
nRT P2
W = dP = nRT ln <0
1 P P1
For an ideal gas, the internal energy Heat transferred from the reser-
depends on temperature only voir to the system:
∆U = 0 P2
Q = ∆U −W = −nRT ln
P1
! V2
W =− P dV
V1
–
nRT
V =
P
nRT
dV = −
2
dP
P
! 2
nRT P2
W = dP = nRT ln <0
1 P P1
∆U = 0 P2
Q = ∆U −W = −nRT ln >0
P1
! V2
W =− P dV
V1
–
nRT
V =
P
nRT
dV = −
2
dP
P
! 2
nRT P2
W = dP = nRT ln <0
1 P P1
∆U = 0 P2
Q = ∆U −W = −nRT ln >0
P1
! V2 What if the system is com-
W =− P dV pressed?
V1
–
Reversible, adiabatic expansion with constant heat capacity
Adiabatic Work done by the system

δW = −P dV
ncv dT = −P dV
d(nRT ) = d(P V ) = P dV + V dP
P V
dT = dV + dP
nR nR
P V
ncv ( dV + dP ) = −P dV
nR nR
No heat is transferred in an adiabatic cv P dV + cv V dP = −RP dV
change: From the law of ideal gases:
dU = δQ +δW cv V dP = −(cv +R)P dV = −cP P dV
"#$%
0
cp dV dP
The temperature changes: − =
cv V P
dU = ncv dT
–
Integrating between states 1 and 2:

& ' & '
V2 P2
−κ ln = ln
V1 P1
with the adiabatic exponent κ (small Greek letter Kappa)

cp
κ=
cv
& ' & '−κ & 'κ
V2 V2 V1
−κ ln = =
V1 V1 V2
ln(P1 V1κ ) = ln(P2 V2κ )
Polytropic processes
P V κ = const
–
Integrating for work:

! ! 2
W = − P dV = − const · V −κ dV
1
( )
const 1 1
= −
κ − 1 V2κ−1 V1κ−1
1 nR
= [P2 V2 − P1 V1 ] = [T2 − T1 ] = ∆U
κ−1 κ−1
Summary of expressions for change in internal energy, heat,

and work for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible process
Isothermal Adiabatic, cv ̸= cv (T )
nR
∆U 0 κ−1 [T2 − T1 ]
Q −nRT ln PP21 0
W nRT ln PP21 nR
κ−1 [T2 − T1 ]
–
2.8 Open-system energy balances on process equipment
Steady state
Stream in = stream out:

ṁ1 = ṁ2
Energy balance
& ' & '
1 . 1
0 = ṁ1 ĥ + ⃗v 2 + gz - m2 ĥ + ⃗v 2 + gz
2 1 2 2
Molar energy balance:

& ' & '
1 . 1
0 = ṅ1 h + M⃗v + M gz - n2 h + M⃗v 2 + M gz
2
2 1 2 2
–
Example 2.18 Diffuser final temperature calculation
Jet engine
The intake to the engine of a jet airliner consists of a diffuser that must reduce
the air velocity to zero so that it can enter the compressor. Consider a jet flying
at a cruising speed of 350 m/s at an altitude of 10.000 m where the temperature
is 10 ◦C. What is the temperature of the air upon exiting the diffuser and entering
the compressor?
SOLUTION: A schematic diagram of the system, including the information that

we know, is shown in Figure E2.15
This steady-state process occurs in an open system with one stream in and one
stream out. In this case, we can write the first law using Equation (2.50):
–
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
M 2 . ⎜ M 2
⃗v + M gz ⎠ - n2 ⎝h +
⎟
0 = ṅ1 ⎝h + ⃗v + M gz ⎠ + Q + "#$%
W
2 " #$ % "2#$ % " #$ % "#$%
0 1 0 0 0
0 2
where the negligible terms have been set to zero. Note that the reference state
for potential energy is set at 10.000 m. A mole balance gives: ṅ1 = ṅ2 so that
Equation (E2.18A) can be simplified to:
! T2
M 2
ekin = ⃗v = (h2 − h1 ) = cp,air dT
2 1 T1
Looking up the value for heat capacity for air in Appendix A.3, we get:
A = 3.355, B = 0.575 × 10−3 , and D = −0.016 × 105
Using the definition of heat capacity, we get the following integral expression:
! T2 ! T2 ( ) ( )T2
D B D
cp dT = R A + BT + 2 dT = R AT + T2 −
T1 283 T 2 T 283
–
Using Equation (E2.18C), Equation (E2.18B) becomes:

( & ')
M 2 B 1 1
⃗v1 = R A(T2 − 283) + (T22 − 2832 ) − D −
2 2 T2 283
We now have one equation with one unknown, T2 , which can be solved implicitly
to give:
T2 = 344 K
The temperature of the air increases because the kinetic energy of the inlet
stream is being converted to internal energy.
–
Example 2.19: Pump power calculation
You wish to pump 0.001 m3 /s of water from a well to your house on a mountain,
250 m above. Calculate the minimum power needed by the pump, neglecting the
friction between the flowing water and the pipe.
SOLUTION: Can you draw a schematic of this process? We need to write the
energy balance. This system is at steady-state, with one stream in and one
stream out. When working with macroscopic potential energy, it is often conve-
nient to write the balance on a mass (rather than mole) basis. We will neglect the
bulk kinetic energy of the water at the inlet and outlet and the heat loss through
the pipe. Since there are no frictional losses, the exit temperature is the same
as the inlet; therefore, their enthalpy is equal. Thus, the first law simplifies to:
1 1
h + ⃗v 2 + gz )1 − ṁ2 ("#$%
0 = ṁ1 ("#$% h + ⃗v 2 +gz)2 + Q +Ws
2
"#$% "#$% 2
"#$% "#$%
0 0 0 0
0 0
or, rearranging V̇
Ws = ṁ2 (gz)2 = gz2 = V̇ ρgz2
v̂2
where V̇ is the volumetric flow rate.
–
Example 2.19: Pump power calculation
Solving for shaft work gives:

m3 m kg
Ws = (0.001 )(9.81 2 )(1000 3 )(250 m) = 2.5 kW
s s m
Note that the sign for work is positive. Why? The actual work needed would be
greater due to frictional losses.
–
Example 2.20 Heat exchanger flow rate calculation
You plan to use a heat exchanger to bring a stream of saturated liquid CO2 at
0 ◦C to a superheated vapor state at 10 ◦C. The flow rate of CO2 is 10 mol/min.
The hot stream available to the heat exchanger is air at 50 ◦C. The air must leave
no cooler than 20 ◦C. The enthalpy of vaporization for CO2 at 0 ◦C is given by:
kJ
∆v ĥCO2 = 236 at 0 ◦C
kg
What is the flow rate of air?
SOLUTION: First, let’s draw a diagram of the system including the information
that we know.
–
There are several possible choices for our system boundary. We will choose
a boundary around the CO2 stream, labeled boundary 1“ in Figure E2.20A. In
”
this case, the heat transferred from the air stream to evaporate and warm the
CO2 stream is labeled Q̇. We next need to perform a first-law balance around
boundary 1. The appropriate energy balance is for an open system at steady-
state with one stream in and one stream out is:
M 2 M 2
0 = ṅ1 (h + ⃗v + M gz )1 − ṅ2 (h + ⃗v +M gz)2 + Q̇ + Ws
2
" #$ % " #$ % 2
" #$ %
"#$%
0 0
0 0
where we have set the bulk kinetic and potential energies and shaft work to zero.
A mole balance yields:
ṅ1 = ṅ2 = ṅCO2
so the first-law balance on boundary 1 simplifies to:
Q̇ = ṅCO2 (h2 − h1 )
To determine the change in enthalpy, we must account for the latent heat (va-
porization) and the sensible heat of the CO2 stream, that is:
–
! T2
(h2 − h1 ) = ∆v hCO2 + cp,CO2 dT
T1
These can be found, in J/mol, as follows. The latent heat is given by:
& '& '
kJ kg J
∆v hCO2 = 236 44 = 10 400
mol kmol mol
! T2 ( & ')
B 2 1 1 J
cp,CO2 dT = R A(T2 − T1 ) + (T2 − T12 ) − D − = 353
T1 2 T2 T1 mol
where the numerical values for the heat capacity parameters, A, B, and D, are
given in Appendix A.3. Thus, the energy transferred via heat to boundary 1 is:
J
Q̇ = 100 753
min
Now that we know the rate at which energy must be supplied to the CO2 stream,
we can find the flow required for the air. We do this by choosing a different
system boundary in the heat exchanger, which is labeled boundary 2 in Figure
E2.20B.
–
A balance similar to that above yields:

−Q̇ = ṅair (h4 − h3 )
Note that we must be careful about signs! We have included a negative sign on
Q̇ since the heat that enters boundary 1 must leave boundary 2. Rearranging
Equation (E2.20A) gives:
–
Q̇ Q̇ Q̇
ṅair = = 0 T4 = 1 2 34
(h4 − h3 ) c dT R A(T4 − T3 ) + B 2 − T32 ) − D 1 1
T3 p,air 2 (T4 T4 − T3
Looking up values for the heat capacity parameters in Appendix A.3, we get:
100 753 J/min mol

ṅair = = 123
877 J/mol min
Alternatively, this problem could have been solved with a system boundary
around the entire heat exchanger. In that case, a first-law balance would give:
0 = ṅCO2 (h2 − h1 ) + ṅair (h4 − h3 )
which could then be solved for ṅair .
–
Example 2.21: Open feedwater heater calculation
Superheated water vapor at a pressure of 200 bar, a temperature of 500 ◦C, and
a flow rate of 10 kg/s is to be brought to a saturated vapor state at 100 bar in an
open feedwater heater. This process is accomplished by mixing this stream with
a stream of liquid water at 20 ◦C and 100 bar. What flow rate is needed for the
liquid stream?
SOLUTION The first step is to draw a diagram of the system with the known
information, as shown in Figure E2.21.
–
This example has two inlet streams in, so Equation (2.50) does not apply. If we
assume that the rate of heat transfer and the bulk kinetic energy of the streams
are negligible and the bulk potential energy and shaft work are set to zero, an
energy balance reduces to:
0 = ṁ1 ĥ1 + ṁ2 ĥ2 − ṁ3 ĥ3
Similarly, a mass balance at steady-state gives:
0 = ṁ1 + ṁ2 − ṁ3
Rearranging Equation (E2.21B) and substituting into (E2.21A) gives:
0 = ṁ1 ĥ1 + ṁ2 ĥ2 − (ṁ1 + ṁ2 )ĥ3
We can look up values for the enthalpies from the steam tables (Appendix B).
For state 1, the superheated steam is at 500 ◦C and 200 bar (= 20 MPa), so:
kJ
ĥ1 = 3238.2
kg
–
For state 2, we use subcooled liquid at 20 ◦C and 100 bar:
kJ
ĥ2 = 93.3
kg
and the saturated vapor at 100 bar (10 MPa) for state 3 is:
kJ
ĥ3 = 2724.7
kg
Finally, rearranging Equation (E2.21C) and plugging in values gives:
ṁ1 (ĥ1 − ĥ3 ) kg

ṁ2 = = 1.95
(ĥ3 − ĥ2 ) s
–
Example 2.22: Throttling device calculation
Water at 350 ◦C flows into a porous plug from a 10 MPa line. It exits at 1 bar. What
is the exit temperature?
SOLUTION: First, let’s draw a diagram of the system, as shown in see Figure
E2.22.
A steady-state energy balance with one stream in and one stream out is appro-
priate for this system. We will assume that the bulk kinetic energy of the stream
is negligible and that the porous plug is sufficiently small as not to allow a signif-
icant rate of heat transfer. Rewriting Equation (2.50) on a mass basis, we get:
1 1
0 = ṁ1 (ĥ + ⃗v 2 + gz )1 − ṁ2 (ĥ + ⃗v 2 + gz )2 + Q̇ + Ẇs
2
"#$% "#$% 2
"#$% "#$% "#$% "#$%
0 0 0 0
0 0
Hence, the energy balance reduces this system to an isenthalpic process:
ĥ1 = ĥ2
–
Example 2.22: Throttling device calculation
Looking up the value for the inlet stream from Appendix B.4, we find:
kJ
ĥ1 = 2923.4
kg
Since the enthalpy of stream 2 equals that of stream 1, we have two intensive
properties to constrain the exit state: ĥ2 and P2 . To find the temperature of
stream 2, we must use linear interpolation. Inspection of the steam tables shows
that T2 is somewhere between 200 to 250 ◦C. The following are taken from the
superheated steam table at 100 kPa.
T /◦C ĥ/kJ/kg
200 2875.3
250 2974.3
Interpolation gives:
5 6 ( )
ĥ2 − ĥat 200 2923.4 − 2874.3
T2 = 200 + [∆T ] = 200 + [50] = 224 ◦C
ĥat 250 − ĥat 200 2973.3 − 2875.3
–
2.9 Thermodynamic cycles and the Carnot cycle
The Carnot cycle
–
Net work
Net work done:
Wnet = |W12 | + |W23 | − |W34 | − |W41 |
Net energy change:
∆Ucycle = Wnet + Qnet
Comparing:
−Wnet = Qnet = Q12 + Q23 + Q34 + Q41 = |QH | − |QC |

"#$% "#$% "#$% "#$%
QH 0 QC 0
Efficiency η
net work Wnet

η= =
heat absorbed from the hot reservoir QH
–
Efficiency
Refrigeration cycle: Coefficient of performance, COP
QC
COP =
Wnet
–
Example 2.23: Carnot cycle efficiency
Problem
Consider 1 mole of an ideal gas in a piston–cylinder assembly. This gas under-
goes a Carnot cycle, which is described below. The heat capacity is constant,
cv = 3/2R.
(i) A reversible, isothermal expansion from 10 bar to 0.1 bar.
(ii) A reversible, adiabatic expansion from 0.1 bar and 1000 K to 300 K.
(iii) A reversible, isothermal compression at 300 K.
(iv ) A reversible, adiabatic compression from 300 K to 1000 K and 10 bar.
Perform the following analysis:
(a) Calculate Q, W , and ∆U for each of the steps in the Carnot cycle.
(b) Draw the cycle on a P v diagram.
(c) Calculate the efficiency of the cycle.
(d) Compare η to 1 − (TC /TH ) .
(e) If what is found in part (d) is true, in general, suggest two ways to make
the above process more efficient.
–
Step I
(a) We will analyze each of the steps separately, with a little help from the results
of Section 2.7. We label each state in a manner consistent with Figure 2.17.
(i) The first process is a reversible, isothermal expansion at 1000 K from state
1 at 10 bar to state 2 at 0.1 bar. By definition, the internal energy change for an
ideal gas at constant temperature is:
∆U = 0
We can calculate the work using a result from Section 2.7:

!
nRT P2
W = dP = nRT ln = −38 287 J
P P1
The negative sign indicates that the system is performing work on the surround-
ings (we are getting useful work out). To find the heat, we apply the first law:
QH = ∆U − W = 38 287 J
–
Step II
(ii) The second process is a reversible, adiabatic expansion from 0.1 bar and
1000 K to state 3 at 300 K. The pressure decreases during this process. By the
definition of an adiabatic process:
Q=0
At constant heat capacity, the change in internal energy becomes:
∆U = ncv(T3 − T2) = - 8730 J
Applying the first law gives:
W = ∆U = −8730 J
–
Step III
(iii) The third process is a reversible, isothermal compression at 300 K. Again:

! !
nRT P4
∆U = 0 ; W = − P dV = = nRT ln
P P3
However, we now need to find P3 and P4 . From Section 2,7, we know P V κ =

const for the polytropic, adiabatic processes (ii) and (iv). We first find κ:
Cp cv + R
κ= = = 1.67
cv cv
Setting P V κ equal for states 2 and 3 gives:
(nRT2 )1.67 (nRT3 )1.67

P V κ = P2 V21.67 = = 7347 =
P20.67 P30.67
Solving for P3 we get: ( )1.5

(nRT3 )1.67
P3 = = 0.0049 bar
7347
–
. . . still step III
Similarly for P4 :
κ (nRT1 )1.67 (nRT4 )1.67

PV = P1 V11.67 = = 341 =
P10.67 P40.67
Solving for P4 we get:

( 1.67
)1.5
(nRT4 )
P4 = = 0.49 bar
341
Thus, the work given by Equation (E2.23A) is:
0.49 bar
W = nRT ln = 11 486 J
0.0049 bar
The work is positive for this compression process. From the first law,
QC = ∆U − W = −11 486 J
–
. . . Step IV
(iv) The fourth process is a reversible, adiabatic compression from state 4 at

300 K and 0.52 bar back to state 1 at 1000 K and 10 bar (process 4 → 1). After
this process, the gas can repeat steps (i), (ii) . . . Again, for this adiabatic
compression:
Q=0
At constant heat capacity, the change in internal energy becomes:
∆U = ncv(T1 − T4 ) = 8730 J
Applying the first law gives:
W = ∆U = 8730 J
–
Summary
A summary of ∆U , W , and Q for the four processes and the totals for the cycle
are presented in Table E2.23A.
Process ∆U/J W/J Q/J

(i) State 1 to 2 0 −38 287 38 287
(ii) State 2 to 3 −8730 −8730 0
(iii) State 3 to 4 0 11 486 −11 486
(iv) State 4 to 1 8730 8730 0
Total 0 −26 800 26 800
We get a net work of 26.8 kJ after one cycle.
–
(b) To sketch this process on a P v diagram, we first calculate the molar volume
at each state using the ideal gas law. The results are presented in Table E2.23B.
State T [K] P [bar] v[m3 /mol]

1 1000 10 0.0083
2 1000 0.1 0.8314
3 300 0.0049 5.1
4 300 0.49 0.051
A sketch (not to scale) of the P v diagram is presented in Figure E2.23.

The work for a reversible process is given by the area under the P v curve; hence,
the net work is given by the shaded area in the box in Figure E2.23. Isotherms,
TH and TC , for processes (i) and (iii) are also labeled.
–
–
(c) The efficiency is given by Equation (2.53)
net work 26800

η≡ = = 0.7
heat absorbed from the hot reservoir 38287
In practice, electrical power plants have efficiencies around 40 %.
(d) Applying the relation in the problem statement, we get:
TC 300
1− = 1− = 0.7
TH 1000
Comparing the values of Equations (E2.23B) and (E2.23C), we get:
TC
η =1−
TH
–
(e) If Equation (E2.23D) holds, the process can be made more efficient by raising
TH or lowering TC . Note that these options will push the isotherms depicted in
Figure E2.23 up and down, respectively. Thus either raising TH or lowering TC
will serve to make the shaded box, which represents net work, larger. We will
learn in Chapter 3 that, indeed, Equation (E2.23D) is true in general. However,
we can also reach this conclusion by realizing that the isotherms in Figure E2.23
are fixed on the P v plane.
–
2.10 Summary
➠ The first law of thermodynamics states that you can’t gain anyting
➠ For a closed system:
∆U + ∆Ekin + ∆Epot = Q + W
➠ For an open system:

& ' & ' & '
dU dEkin dEpot 7 1 7 1
+ + = ṁin ĥ + ⃗v 2 + gz − ṁout ĥ + ⃗v 2 + gz
dt dt dt sys 2 in out
2 out
in
+ Q̇ + Ẇ
➠ A process is reversible if the system can be returned to its original state without
any net effect on the surroundings
➠ Real processes are always irreversible because they are carried out with finite
driving forces.
–
2.10 Summary
➠ the enthalpy is defined as

h ≡ u + Pv
➠ In flowing systems, enthalpy accounts for both the internal energy of the
stream and the flow work associated with it entering or leaving the system
➠ The heat capacity for a species is fit to a polynomial
D
cp = A + BT + CT 2 + + ET 3
T2
–
References
The lecture follows Koretsky [1]. Further reading: Cengel [2], Callen [3], Kondepudi and Prigogine [4],
[1] KORETSKY, Milo D. , Engineering and chemical thermodynamics. 2nd ed. Wiley, 2012. ISBN : 9780470259610.
[2] CENGEL, Yunus A. , Michael A. BOLES, Thermodynamics: an engineering approach. 8th ed. McGraw Hill, 2014. ISBN :
9789814595292.
[3] CALLEN, H. B. , Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1986. ISBN :
8126508124.
[4] KONDEPUDI, Dilip , Ilya PRIGOGINE, Modern thermodynamics. Chichester: Wiley, 1998. ISBN : 0471973947.

09-10 Reversible Processes and Open System Energy Balance

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09-10 Reversible Processes and Open System Energy Balance

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Engineering Thermodynamics

Lecture 9 Reversible Processes

Isothermal Law of ideal gases:

For an ideal gas, the internal energy

Isothermal Law of ideal gases:

For an ideal gas, the internal energy

Isothermal Law of ideal gases:

Isothermal Law of ideal gases:

Isothermal Law of ideal gases:

Adiabatic Work done by the system

Integrating between states 1 and 2:

with the adiabatic exponent κ (small Greek letter Kappa)

Integrating for work:

Summary of expressions for change in internal energy, heat,

Stream in = stream out:

Molar energy balance:

SOLUTION: A schematic diagram of the system, including the information that

A = 3.355, B = 0.575 × 10−3 , and D = −0.016 × 105

Using Equation (E2.18C), Equation (E2.18B) becomes:

Solving for shaft work gives:

A balance similar to that above yields:

100 753 J/min mol

0 = ṅCO2 (h2 − h1 ) + ṅair (h4 − h3 )

which could then be solved for ṅair .

Similarly, a mass balance at steady-state gives:

0 = ṁ1 + ṁ2 − ṁ3

Rearranging Equation (E2.21B) and substituting into (E2.21A) gives:

0 = ṁ1 ĥ1 + ṁ2 ĥ2 − (ṁ1 + ṁ2 )ĥ3

For state 2, we use subcooled liquid at 20 ◦C and 100 bar:

Finally, rearranging Equation (E2.21C) and plugging in values gives:

ṁ1 (ĥ1 − ĥ3 ) kg

The Carnot cycle

−Wnet = Qnet = Q12 + Q23 + Q34 + Q41 = |QH | − |QC |

net work Wnet

Refrigeration cycle: Coefficient of performance, COP

We can calculate the work using a result from Section 2.7:

At constant heat capacity, the change in internal energy becomes:

∆U = ncv(T3 − T2) = - 8730 J

Applying the first law gives:

(iii) The third process is a reversible, isothermal compression at 300 K. Again:

However, we now need to find P3 and P4 . From Section 2,7, we know P V κ =

(nRT2 )1.67 (nRT3 )1.67

Solving for P3 we get: ( )1.5

. . . still step III

κ (nRT1 )1.67 (nRT4 )1.67

Solving for P4 we get:

Thus, the work given by Equation (E2.23A) is:

(iv) The fourth process is a reversible, adiabatic compression from state 4 at

Applying the first law gives:

Process ∆U/J W/J Q/J

We get a net work of 26.8 kJ after one cycle.

State T [K] P [bar] v[m3 /mol]

A sketch (not to scale) of the P v diagram is presented in Figure E2.23.

(c) The efficiency is given by Equation (2.53)

net work 26800

➠ For an open system:

➠ the enthalpy is defined as

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