 Thomson concluded the beam was
Physical
Science
Reviewer
WEEK 1
Democritus 460 BC
 Greek Philosopher
 Suggested world was made of
two things – empty space and
“atomos”
 Atomos – Greek word for
uncuttable
 2 Main ideas
 Atoms are the smallest possible
particle of matter
 There are different types of
atoms for each material
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1804
1. All matter is made of atoms.
2. Atoms of one element are all the
same.
3. Atoms cannot be broken down
into smaller parts
4. Compounds form by combining
atoms
Dalton’s Early Atomic Model
► “Billiard Ball” model
►he envisioned atoms as solid, hard
spheres, like billiard(pool) balls, so he
used wooden balls to model them
J.J. Thomson 1897
 Discovered the electron
 He was the first scientist to show
the atom was made of even smaller
things
 Used the Cathode ray tube to
discover electrons
 Passing an electric current makes a
beam appear to move from the
negative to the positive end
 Adding an electric field cause the
beam to move toward the positive
plate.
made of negative moving pieces.
 Plum Pudding Model
Eugen Goldstein 1850-1930
 Using a cathode ray tube he
discovered canal rays which are
beams of positively charged
particles.
 He is credited with the discovery of
protons in an atom.
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment
 Determined the charge on an
electron
 Used Thomson’s charge to mass
ratio to calculate the mass of an
electron
Ernest Rutherford - 1913
 discovered the nucleus of a gold
atom with his “gold foil” experiment
 Using J.J Thomson’s Plum Pudding
atomic model, Rutherford predicted
the alpha particles would pass
straight though the gold foil. That’s
not what happened.
 Gold Foil Experiment Results most
alpha particles go straight through
the gold foil
 A few alpha particles are sharply
deflected
Rutherford’s Conclusion
 The atom is mostly empty space.
 There is a small, dense center with
a positive charge.
 Rutherford discovered the nucleus
in atoms
Rutherford’s Contribution to the
Atomic Theory
 The atom is mostly empty space.
 The nucleus is a small, dense core
with a positive charge.
Structure of the Atom
 Atom – smallest particle of an
element that can exist alone
▪ Two regions of an atom
►Nucleus
▪ Center of an atom
▪ Protons and neutrons
►Electron “cloud”
▪ Area surrounding nucleus containing
electrons
►Proton – Positive charge (+), 1 atomic
mass unit (amu); found in the nucleus
▪ amu -Approximate mass of a proton or
a neutron
►Neutron – Neutral charge (0), 1 amu;
found in the nucleus
►Electron – Negative charge (-), mass
is VERY small
Counting Atoms
►Atomic Number
▪ Number of protons in nucleus
▪The number of protons determines
identity of the element!!
►Mass Number (Atomic Mass)
▪ Number of protons + neutrons
▪ Units are g/mol
►Isotopes
▪ Atoms of the same element with
varying number of neutrons
▪ Different isotopes have different mass
numbers because the number of
neutrons is different
Atoms
►Protons have a positive (+) charge
and electrons have a negative (-)
charge
►In a neutral atom, the number of
protons equals the number of electrons,
so the overall charge is zero (0)
▪ Example/ Helium, with an atomic
number of 2, has 2 protons and 2
electrons when stable
Ions
►In a neutral atom
▪ Atomic number = # of protons = #of
electrons
►Sometimes atoms will gain or lose
electrons and form IONS
►Because an electron has a negative
charge:
▪ When an atom GAINS electrons it
becomes NEGATIVE
▪ When an atom LOSES electrons it
becomes POSITIVE
Cation = a positive ion
Anion = a negative ion
WEEK 2
Formation of the Elements
and Nuclear Reactions
Nucleosynthesis
 Nucleosynthesis is the process of
element (nuclei) formation.
•Three types:
 Big Bang nucleosynthesis
 Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
 Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova
nucleosynthesis are occurring in our
universe.
• Element formation in our universe
relies on nuclear fusion reactions.
(fusion = come together)
Nuclear Fusion
• In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei collide
together to make larger nuclei, and
energy is released in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
• Requires extremely high temperatures
and pressures beyond those found on
or within Earth. However, these
temperatures and pressures are found
inside stars and did occur during the
initial formation of our universe (during
the Big Bang event).
• Fusion involves only the nuclei of
atoms. At the temperatures at which
fusion can occur, matter exists as a
plasma. This is the state of matter
where the electrons have been stripped
off of the atoms. Plasma is basically a
super high Energy, electrically charged
gas.
• When nuclei collide, some of the mass
of the nuclei is converted to energy by
Einstein’s famous equation, E=mc2
• Nuclear fusion releases a lot of energy
per gram of material; much more energy
than is released by burning a
comparable amount of wood, coal, oil,
or gasoline!
The Big Bang
• The Big Bang Theory is the most
widely accepted scientific theory about
the origin of the universe. It is supported
by multiple lines of evidence.
• The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally
energetic explosion that initiated the
expansion of the universe.
• At the moment prior to the Big Bang
explosion, all matter and energy were
compressed at a single point (a
singularity – a point of infinite density).
• We do not know what was before…..?
• The universe has been expanding
ever since, with galaxies moving farther
and farther apart.
• Using the rates of expansion
measured in the universe and
astronomical distances, the age of the
universe can be calculated back to the
time of the Big Bang. The age of the
universe is calculated at about 13.7
billion years old. By contrast, our Sun
and its surrounding planets (i.e. our
Solar System) is 4.65 billion years old.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• All Hydrogen and most Helium in the
universe was produced during the Big
Bang Event, starting ~100 seconds after
the explosion. A small amount of
Lithium was also produced.
• Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased
within a few minutes after the Big Bang
because the universe had expanded
and cooled sufficiently by then such that
the temperatures and pressures were
too low to support additional nuclear
fusion reactions.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• A star is a very hot ball of gas
(plasma). Stars create elements by
combining lighter nuclei into heavier
nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in
their cores and releasing energy in the
process.They are natural nuclear
reactors!
• Enormous temperatures (15,000,000
K), pressures, and densities of matter
are needed to initiate the fusion
(thermonuclear) reactions which
squeeze nuclei together and release
energy.
• The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun
converts hydrogen to helium and
releases energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (see the basic
fusion reaction below). This is why our
Sun shines!
• Our Sun is only large enough to fuse
hydrogen into helium within its core.
• Stars much larger than our Sun can
fuse heavier elements from lighter
elements.
• These giant stars have an “onion
layer” structure.
• As you proceed deeper into the star,
temperatures and pressures increase,
and heavier and heavier nuclei are
fused together.
• The heaviest element that can be
made in a star is iron. Elements heavier
than iron have fusion reactions with
temperature and pressure requirements
greater than those that can occur within
the core of a giant star.
• Note: In the adjacent diagrams, the
term “burning” really means nuclear
fusion!
Three Types of Nucleosynthesis
STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
Formation of Hydrogen to Helium
 Proton-proton Chain or Hydrogen
Burning-fusion of four hydrogen
nuclei to form a helium nucleus.
 Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen (CNO)
Cycle - conversion of hydrogen to
helium among massive stars by
using carbon as catalyst.
 Triple-alpha Process - alpha
particle is equivalent to Helium
atom. first reaction forms unstable
Beryllium, Be atom
 Alpha ladder process - additional
helium-burning reactions results to
synthesis or formation of heavier
nuclei up to iron, Fe
Supernova Nucleosynthesis
• Elements heavier than Iron (Z = 26)
are made primarily when giant stars
explode in supernovae.
• Even the largest stars do not have
core temperatures and pressures high
enough to fuse iron into heavier
elements. Therefore, when a star runs
out of nuclear fuel (lighter nuclei) and
can no longer undergo fusion reactions,
gravity causes the star to collapse. The
gravitational collapse triggers a
phenomenally large explosion called a
supernova. The explosion of the star
momentarily generates high enough
temperatures and pressures to cause
nuclear fusion reactions that make
elements with atomic numbers 27-92
(Cobalt to Uranium).
• Since only the largest stars can
explode in supernovae events, elements
with atomic numbers 27-92 are rarer
than elements with atomic numbers 1-
26 (see abundance diagram to right)

Nuclear Fission
• We have learned that elements form in
the universe by nuclear fusion reactions
which assemble larger nuclei by forcing
smaller nuclei together under
tremendous temperatures and
pressures.
• However, elements can also form
when a large, unstable nucleus breaks
apart in an attempt to achieve a more
stable, lower energy state.
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two
or more smaller, more stable nuclei is
called nuclear fission. (fission = split)
• Fission may occur spontaneously
(without energy being added) or it may
be prompted by firing a nuclear bullet
(like a proton or neutron) at an unstable
nucleus, as seen in the example below.
• Like fusion, fission also releases
energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
However, not as much energy is
released from fission as from fusion.
Still, the energy released per gram of
material by fission is considerably more
than the energy released by burning a
comparable amount of wood, oil,
gasoline, etc. Fission of uranium-235
atoms is used in nuclear power plants to
produce energy.
• Fission also occurs naturally within the
layers of the earth as radioactive
elements in rocks spontaneously decay
to more stable elements, creating a
natural source of heat within the earth.
You also contain a small proportion of
radioactive isotopes within your body.
These isotopes decay naturally,
releasing radiation. Therefore, you are
slightly radioactive too! So is the banana
you ate for breakfast!
Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the release of energy,
in the form of energetic particles and
waves, from the nuclei of unstable
(radioactive) isotopes. Radioactive
atoms undergo fission-type reactions in
order to try to become more stable
nuclei with lower energies. Radioactive
atoms are called radioisotopes.
• The nuclei of unstable, radioactive
isotopes have the wrong ratio of
neutrons to protons (n/p). Generally, it is
too high. When n/p of an isotope falls
between 1 to 1.5, the nucleus is stable
(within the “Band of Stability” on a n0 vs.
p+ plot). Outside of that range, nuclei
tend to be unstable and break apart
over time. This “breaking apart” of
unstable nuclei over time and the
accompanying release of nuclear
particles and energy is called
radioactive decay.
Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha
Decay
 In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus
releases two neutrons and two
protons. This is called an alpha ( )
particle. It is equivalent to a
nuclei. Energy is also released in
the process.
 As a result, the mass number of the
remaining nucleus decreases by 4
and the atomic number decreases
by 2. A new element is formed in
the process!
Types of Radioactive Decay – Beta
Decay
 In beta decay of an unstable
nucleus, a neutron suddenly
changes to a proton, releasing an
electron, a ghostly, low mass
particle called a neutrino (not
pictured), and energy!
 As a result, the atomic number of
the remaining nucleus increases by
1 but the mass number does not
change. A new element is formed!
 Note: The released electron did not
come from outside the nucleus. It
came from inside the nucleus. It is
called a beta (β) particle.
Types of Radioactive Decay –
Gamma Decay
 In gamma decay, an unstable
nucleus releases a high energy
form of electromagnetic radiation
(light) called a gamma ( ) particle
or a gamma ray. This particle of
light is also known as a photon.
 The energy is released as the
protons and neutrons in the
unstable nucleus reposition
themselves in an attempt to find a
lower energy arrangement.
 Since no protons or neutrons are
released, the mass number and
atomic number of the nucleus
remain unchanged, and no new
element is formed. Gamma decay
usually accompanies alpha and
beta decay.
Nuclear Reactions can be
Represented by Nuclear Equations
• Fusion
Making a larger nucleus from two or
more smaller nuclei
• Fission
Making two or more smaller nuclei from
a larger nucleus
Important Symbols Used in Nuclear
Equations
• To write a nuclear reaction, you must
remember how to read and use isotope
symbol notation
• You must know the symbols used for
various subatomic particles like protons,
neutrons, etc.
Transmutation
 Transmutation is a general term for
the changing of chemical element
or isotope to another by changing
the number of protons and/or
neutrons. Fusion and fission
reactions both qualify as
transmutations. The bombardment
of a nucleus by a nuclear bullet in
order to change it into another
element also counts as
transmutation.
Synthetic Elements
• Elements with atomic numbers Z ≥ 93
are synthetic (man-made)
• These elements have been made in
particle accelerators, either by smashing
smaller nuclei together or else by
shooting nuclear bullets at large nuclei.
• These elements are all radioactive.
They decay over time to more stable
elements, releasing radiation (particles
and energy) from their nuclei. Some
have very short half-lives and have only
existed for fractions of a second.
• Some synthetic elements have uses
for mankind. Americium (Am) is used in
smoke detectors. Others have no
current use but were made during basic
research to better understand atomic
nuclei and the forces that hold them
together. The heaviest synthetic
element has an atomic number of 118. It
has no uses at present
WEEK 3 – Gases are compressible fluids. Their
POLARITY AND molecules are widely separated.
– Liquids are relatively in-compressible
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES fluids. Their molecules are more tightly
packed.
 An element is a pure substance and
is made of only one type of atom.
– Solids are nearly in-compressible and
 Octet Rule- electron transfer or rigid. Their molecules or ions are in
electron sharing proceeds until an close contact and do not move.
atom has acquired an octet of
electrons Intermolecular forces are attractive
 Electronegativity- the ability of an forces between molecules.
atom to attract to itself an electron (Example: water molecule to water
pair shared with another atom in a molecule)
chemical bond Intramolecular forces hold atoms
together within in a molecule.
Electronegativity Difference and Type (Example: H to O bond within a water
of Bond molecule).
Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water
(inter) • 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in
1 mole of water (intra)
Example: NaCl  Generally, intermolecular forces are
Cl 3.0 eV much weaker than intramolecular
Na - 0.9 eV forces.
2.1 eV
Type of Bond: Ionic

Example: H2
H 2.1 eV
H - 2.1 eV
0 eV
Type of Bond: Nonpolar Covalent

Example: HCl
Cl 3.0 eV
H - 2.1 eV
0.9 eV
Type of Bond: Polar Covalent
Recalling the Past
1. All matter is made of tiny particles.
2. These particles are in constant
motion.
3. The speed of particles is proportional
to temperature. Increased temperature
means greater speed.
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in
distances between particles, in the
freedom of motion of particles, and in
the extent to which the particles interact.
STATES OF MATTER
Comparison of gases, liquids, and
solids.
LONDON DISPERSION FORCES
 Fritz London
 These are forces that arise as a
result of temporary dipoles induced
in the atoms or molecules
 All molecules have some degree of
LD forces
 LD forces occur between neutral
non-polar molecules. (nobles gases
and nonpolar compounds)
 LD forces are weak The greater
the number of electrons the greater
the LD force. (ie the greater the
melting and boiling pt.)
 LD force molecules have Low
melting and boiling pts
 The larger the molecule the greater
it’s Dispersion Forces are.
 Weakest force
 The boiling point of long molecules
increase with the length of the
carbon chain.
How molecular shape affects the
strength of the Dispersion Forces
 The shapes of the molecules also
matter. Long thin molecules can
develop bigger temporary dipoles
due to electron movement than
short fat ones containing the same
numbers of electrons.
 Butane has a higher boiling point
because the dispersion forces are
greater.
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
 These are forces of attraction that
occur between polar molecules.
(big difference in electron
negativity)
 These forces are effective only
when polar molecules are very
close. As distance increase
strength of bond decreases.
 For molecules of approximately
equal mass and size, the strength
of force of attraction increases as
the polarity increases.
 Radius have an effect on strength
of dipole.
 Molecules with larger dipole
moments have higher melting and
boiling points (hard to break) than
those with small dipole moments.
 Dipole attractions are relatively
weak and tend to be liquids or gas
at room temperature.
 Dipole Forces occur between
molecules containing a dipole
moment.
 The positive end of the dipole
moment on one mole is attracted to
the negative end of the dipole
moment on a nearby molecule
ION-DIPOLE FORCES
 Attractive forces between an ion
and a polar molecule
 The larger the charge the stronger
the force
What type(s) of intermolecular forces
are existing in the following:
 HBr
- HBr is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole
forces. There are also dispersion forces
between HBr molecules.
 CH4
- CH4 is nonpolar: dispersion forces.
 SO2
- SO2 is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole
forces. There are also dispersion forces
between SO2 molecules.
HYDROGEN BOND
 strongest intermolecular force
 A hydrogen bond is an
intermolecular bond.
 A hydrogen bond is formed
between polar molecules that
contain hydrogen covalently
bonded to a small, highly
electronegative atom: F, O, N.
 It will be attracted to another F, O,
or N, on another molecule.
 A dipole-dipole bond will be formed
between the two molecules which is
called a hydrogen bond.
 Water in the liquid and solid states
exists as groups in which the water
molecules are linked together by
hydrogen bonds.
WHY HYDROGEN BONDING IS
EFFECTIVE???
 F, O, & N are extremely small and
very electronegative atoms.
 Hydrogen atoms have no inner
core of electrons, therefore, the
positive side of the bond dipole has
the concentrated charge of the
partially exposed, nearly bare
proton of the nucleus
 …in other words, the atoms have a
large difference in electronegativity
and their nuclei can get really close.
IMPORTANCE OF HYDROGEN
BONDING
 Are important biologically, in
stabilizing proteins and keeping
DNA together.
 Also explains why ice is less dense
than water
 • the most abundant biomolecules on
earth
• made up of monosaccharide subunits
WEEK 4 •include individual sugar molecules
BIOMOLECULES (monosaccharides) as well as two or
more molecules chemically linked by
LIFE MOLECULES – YOU ARE WHAT glycosidic bonds
YOU EAT!
1. Carbohydrates FUNCTION
2. Proteins • Provide QUICK energy to the body!
3. Lipids • Structural support and storage
4. Comparing biomolecules of energy.
5. Constructing glucose molecules

Biomolecules or Biological
LIPIDS
• nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature
Molecules
• include fats and oils, waxes,
• Chemical molecules that play an
phospholipids, steroids, cholesterol
important role in a living system.
• stored form of energy and can include
• Have specific functions
triglycerides
• Arranged from smaller and simpler
• made up of fatty acids and glycerol
molecules
Characteristics of Biomolecules
FUNCTION
• Most of them are organic
• Made mainly of carbon and hydrogen
compounds.
(few oxygen)
• They have specific shapes and
• Fat best method of STORING
dimensions.
• forms cell membranes
• The functional group determines their
• Insulates nerve cells (myelin)
chemical properties.
• Insulates body (maintains
• Many of them are asymmetric.
homeostasis)
• Macromolecules are large molecules
•storage of energy and building material
and are constructed from small building
for cell membranes
block molecules.

Distribution of Selected Elements in PROTEINS

the Human Body • small organic molecules that consist of
an alpha (central) carbon atom linked to
an amino group, a carboxyl group, a
hydrogen atom, and a variable
component called a side chain
MONOMER: AMINO ACIDS
•Contains C, H, O, N
•20 types
•Has both hydrophobic & hydrophylic
ends
•Differ in R-group
•R-group can be acidic, basic or neutral
•Makes polypeptide then makes
4 Major Types of Biomolecules proteins
•CARBOHYDRATES POLYMER: POLYPEPTIDE
•LIPIDS (PEPTIDE MEANS BOND)
•NUCLEIC ACID •Formed by dehydration synthesis
•PROTEINS •Sequence determined by DNA
•3-D and folds to take up less space
CARBOHYDRATES
FUNCTION
• Structural support, movement,
defense, catalyst, and transport
• Provides us with building blocks for
life!
• Also regulate most functions in a cell.
• Glycoproteins (antigens)
• Combines w/DNA to form
chromosomes
• Turns genes on and off
• Antibodies (fights disease)
• Provides structure & strength (fibers)
• Transports molecules in & out cells
•Hemoglobin (transports O2)
• Enzymes (speeds up rxns)-has –ase
suffix
• Acts as hormones (insulin) -many
proteins have suffix of -in
NUCLEIC ACIDS
• consists of a sugar molecule (either
ribose in RNA or deoxyribosein DNA)
• attached to a phosphate group and a
nitrogen-containing base
• The bases used in DNA are adenine
(A),cytosine(C),guanine(G),and
thymine(T).
• Contains C, H, O, N, P
• Monomer: NUCLEOTIDES
• Nucleotides consist of 3 parts:
1. 5-Carbon Sugar
2. Phosphate Group
3. Nitrogenous Base
NUCLEOTIDE: NITROGEN BASES
• 5 types
• Cytosine
• Guanine
• Adenine
• Thymine (in DNA only)
• Uracil (in RNA only)
• Purines or pyrimidines
In DNA: In RNA:
C-G A-T C-G A-U
NUCLEOTIDES: 5-CARBON SUGAR
AND PHOSPHATE GROUP
• 2 types of sugars
–Ribose (in RNA only)
–Deoxyribose (in DNA only)
• Phosphate group
– Contains phosphorus &
oxygen
• Polymer: polynucleotide
FUNCTION
•storage and transfer of information
POLYPEPTIDE:DNA
(DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
• contains the genetic code
• stores & transmit heredity/genetic
information
• found in the nucleus (mitochondria)
• Double stranded (double helix)
POLYPEPTIDE: RNA (RIBONUCLEIC
ACID)
• Carries info from DNA to cell
• Helps in protein synthesis
• found in ribosomes & nucleoli
• Single stranded
POLYPEPTIDE: ATP
• Contains adenine, ribose sugar, 3
phosphates
• Stores and releases energy
WHICH BIOMOLECULE HAS THE
MOST ENERGY!?
C-H BONDS
• Count the number of C-H bonds in
your monosaccharide picture.
• Count the number of C-H bonds in
your saturated or unsaturated bond
picture
• Which biomolecule (carbs or fats) have
more C-H bonds?
THE NUMBER OF C-H BONDS = THE
AMOUNT OF ENERGY
•The more C-H bonds a biomolecule
has, the more energy it has!
•Fats have the most energy because
they have the most C-H bonds