ACTION WORDS OR VERBS -A verb marked for Goal Focus, also
Ibutang mo sa lamesa ang
(PUNGLIHOK)
VERBS
Verbs are distinguished from other words in
Hiligaynon and Cebuano-Visayan languages by
their inflection. Verbs are inflected for Focus,
Aspect, and Tense.
VERB FOCUS
Focus refers to a special grammatical relation
between the action (as represented by the
predicate verb) and one of the participants in the
action (as represented by the noun phrase
complements.)
1. ACTOR FOCUS
-Actor focus is signaled by the affix -um-
(in Hiligaynon) and mi- (in Cebuano-
Visayan) class of affixes and indicates
that the actor or the doer of the action is
the topic of the sentence. In simpler
words, when the subject performs the
role of an actor, the verb is in actor
focus.
EXAMPLE:
1) Lumangoy si Lina sa baybay. (H)
Milangoy si Lina sa baybay. (C-V)
2) Kumanta si Lyndee sa programa.
(H)
Mikanta si Lyndee sa programa.
(C-V)
3) Sumulat si Yang sang mensahe
kang Richard. (H)
Misulat si Yang og mensahe
kang Richard. (C-V)
2. GOAL FOCUS
2.
known as Object Focus, if it indicates pagkaon.
that the topic of the sentence is the 3. Iluto nako ang adobo para ni
object which directly receives the action. Tatay.
This focus is signaled by the verb suffix - 5. STATIVE GOAL FOCUS
on. The topic phrase is introduced by the -The Stative Goal Focus is signaled by the
particle ang. affix ma-. The topic of the sentence is the
EXAMPLE: party, which has been put into some
1. Lutuon ko ang pagkaon. state, or to whom some quality or
2. Kaonon mo ang manga sa characteristic is attributed by another.
kusina. 1. Maluto niya ang sinugba
3. Singhuton mo ang mahumot karon sa baga.
nga gumamela. 2. Malitok kini nga istorya sa
3. REFERENT FOCUS nakadungog nato ganina.
-Also known as Locative Focus, a verb 3. Mahuman ra kining istorya sa
marked for referent focus when it isa ka oras.
indicates that the location or beneficiary 6. STATIVE ACTOR FOCUS
of the action is the topic of the sentence. -The Stative Actor Focus is signaled by
This focus is signaled by the verb suffix - the affix maka-. This indicates that the
an. topic of the sentence has an inherent
EXAMPLE: ability to be in the state specified or has
1. Tudluan ko og kanta ang bat the inherent quality named by the verb
ani Rhea. root.
2. Kantahan niya og 1. Makabasa ko sa taas nga
paboritong kanta si Ms. istorya.
Leah. 2. Makaluto si Nanay og
3. Lutuan ko og lam inga pagkaon.
pagkaon si Inday. 3. Makadungog si Luna og kanta
4. ACCESSORY FOCUS sa sala.
-This indicates that the topic of the SUMMARY OF VERB FOCUS
sentence is the thing used in the VERB FOCUS AFFIX USED
performance of a particular action. Actor Focus Signaled by -um-
or mi-
Accessory focus verbs are usually
Goal Focus Signaled by the
signaled by the prefix i-.
suffix -on
EXAMPLE: Referent Focus Signaled by the
1. Ilimpyo mo sa sapatos ang suffix -an
trapo.
 Accessory Focus Signaled by the Real: Giluto nako ang karne. • Adjectives usually provide relevant and
prefix i- more specific information about the
Stative Goal Focus Signaled by the 5. STATIVE GOAL FOCUS
nouns or pronouns they modify or
affix ma-
Stative Actor Focus Signaled by the Unreal: Maluto niya ang adobo. describe by answering the questions,
affix maka- which may include the following: What
Real: Naluto niya ang adobo.
VERB ASPECT kind? How many? Which one? How
VERB TENSES much?
The Aspect of a verb shows whether or not an
Tense refers to the time when the action of the
action has begun. In other definition, aspect EXAMPLES:
verb occurs. The action can occur in one of three
also pertains to how an event or action is to be
time periods: past, present, or future. WHAT KIND?
viewed with respect to time, rather than to its
Verbs Past Present Future
actual location in time. ▪ Sheila is a lazy student.
(Mga (Kagahapon) (Karon) (Ugma)
Berbo)
▪ Leah is a popular woman in
TYPES OF VERB ASPECTS
school.
Unreal Aspect-shows that the action has not yet Suwat Nagsuwat Nagasuwat Magsuwat
HOW MANY?
begun. (write)
▪ Ruffa has twenty cellphones in
Real Aspect-show that the action has already Laba Nanglaba Naglaba Manglaba her bag.
begun. (wash) ▪ Zion has five houses in New
1. ACTOR FOCUS Kaon Ningkaon Nagkaon Mokaon Zealand.
(eat)
Unreal: Misuwat si Rio og mensahe kang Tulog Natulog Nakatulog Matulog WHICH ONE?
Crizelda. (sleep)
▪ Rio bought those blue shoes.
VERB TENSE (CEBUANO-VISAYAN) ▪ Some fish lived in a beautiful ocean near
Real: Nisuwat si Rio og mensahe kang Crizelda.
ADJECTIVES (PUNGWAY) the Pacific.
2. GOAL FOCUS
WHAT IS AN ADJECTIVE? Word Formation of Adjectives in C-V Language
Unreal: Lutuon nako ang adobo.
• An adjective describes or modifies HOW ADJECTIVES ARE FORMED?
Real: Giluto nako ang adobo.
noun/s or pronoun/s in a sentence. It In the Philippine setting, specifically in the
3. REFERENT FOCUS normally indicates quality, size, number, Cebuano-Visayan language, some adjectives are
shape, duration, feelings, contents, and formed by adding affixes, most particularly
Unreal: Lutoan mo nako ug adobo.
more about a noun or pronoun. prefixes, to the base words.
Real: Gilutoan mo nako ug adobo. • It is translated as “pungway,” which is a
shortened term for “pulong ADJECTIVES ARE FORMED USING
4. ACCESSORY FOCUS
panghulagway,” which translates to 1. Prefix ma - it tells of a character or
Unreal: Iluto nako ang karne. “words for describing.” quality of something.
 Good – Maayo • Tagasyudad ang pamilya ni Ma’am simultaneously, as well the use of words ‘pinaka’
• Maayo kayo ang iyahang maestra sa Rhea. and ‘labing.’
skwelahan. Beautiful – Maanindut
Three Degrees of Comparison (Tulo ka Hugna Positive Comparati Superlative
• Maanindut ang mga buntod didto sa (Pangyan ve (Panglabing)
sa Pagtandi)
bukid. o) (Panglaba
2. Prefix di - it tells a contraction of indi DEGREES OF COMPARISON w)
(no/not) and is usually connected to a Big Bigger Biggest
descriptive. In the English language, a degree of comparison Beautiful More Most beautiful
Untrue - Dimatuod is a form of adjective that is used to compare a beautiful
person or thing possessing the same quality with Banha More Kinabanhaan
• Dimatuod ang mga istorya na imong banha
nadunggan. Unright – Dimatarong another.
Humot Mas Kinahumotan/pinakahu
• Dimatarong ang tanang nahitabo niya. The three degrees of comparison include: humot mot
3. Prefix pang - used to show purpose or Taas Mas taas Kinataasan/pinakataas
rank. 1. Positive (Pangyano) – relies on the basic form ADVERB (PUNGWAYON)
Pangtulog of an adjective and is not being compared. In this
degree, there is no existence of comparison. ADVERB
• Kuhaa ang imong pangtulog nga sinina
sa kwarto. Pangkasal 2. Comparative (Panglabaw) – is the degree in An adverb is a word or a set of words that
• Suoton nako ang sapatos nga which two things are being compared to. Most modifies or describes verbs (punglihok),
pangkasal. adjectives, specifically one or two syllable adjectives (pungway), other adverbs (lain pang
4. Prefix pa - means being caused to be. adjectives form their comparative degree by pungwayon), or the entire sentence (tibuuk
Patagilid adding ‘r’ or ‘er’. tudling pulong). It answers how, when, where,
• Patagilid ang linya nga gihimo niya. how often, or to what extent something
Paliko Moreover, some adjectives which have three happens, which relates to the different types of
• Paliko ug porma ang iyang gidibuho syllables are formed by adding the word ‘more’ adverbs.
nga sakyanan. before the main adjective. In the Cebuano-
Visayan language, the use of the word ‘mas’ is TYPES OF ADVERBS (MGA MATANG SA
5. Prefix ka - used to show similarity or
added to adjectives. PUNGWAYON)
likeness.
Katupong 1. PUNGWAYON SA PAMAAGI (MANNER)
3. Superlative (Panglabing) – is the highest
• Katupong mo ug buhok ni Lydia.
degree of adjective used in comparing three or - In English, pungwayon sa pamaagi is adverb of
Kapareha
more things. Most adjectives are formed in this manner. It answers the question “how a
• Kapareha niya ug nawng ang akong
degree by adding ‘st’ or ‘est’ and some are particular action is done.” Most adverbs of
igsuon.
formed by adding the word ‘most’ preceding the manner usually end in –ly. It is sometimes
6. Prefix taga - refers to the place of origin.
main adjective. referred to as “pungwayon sa giunsa pagbuhat
Taga-Manila.
• Taga-Manila akong mama sauna. In the Cebuano-Visayan language, adjectives in ug mga lihok.”
Tagasyudad this degree use the prefix ‘kina’ and suffix ‘an’ C-V: Nindot ang iyang pagtugtog sa gitara.
Eng: He plays the guitar beautifully.
2. PUNGWAYON SA PANAHON (TIME)
Pungwayon sa panahon is the Cebuano-Visayan
translation of the adverb of time. This type of
adverb answers the question “when a particular
action happens.” It is sometimes referred to as
“pungwayon sa panahon sa pagbuhat sa lihok.”
C-V: Mamasyal si Riza ugma sa hapon.
Eng: Riza will go for a walk tomorrow afternoon.
3.PUNGWAYON SA DAPIT (PLACE)
In English, pungwayon sa dapit is adverb of place.
It answers the question “where the action
happened.” It is usually placed after the main
verb or object or at the end of the sentence. It is
sometimes referred to as “adberbiyo sa lugar
nga nahitabuan sa lihok.”
C-V: Ang mga bata kay nagduwa sa gawas.
Eng: The kids are playing outside.
4. PUNGWAYON SA KASUBSOB (FREQUENCY)
This particular type of adverb describes how
often the verb or action occurs. They are placed
before the main verb of a sentence. Some of
these are never (wala gayud), always (kanunay),
sometimes (usahay), usually or often
(kasagaran), and many others.
C-V: Aduna sila’y duwa kada semana.
Eng: They have a match every week.
5. PUNGWAYON SA KATAGI (DEGREE)
In English, pungwayon sa katagi is adverb of
degree. This type of adverb tells us the level of
intensity of a verb, adjective, or even another
adverb in a sentence. Simply, it answers the
question “to what extent.”
C-V: Hilabihang ka init sa panahon ning
milabayng mga adlaw. Eng: The weather has
been very hot these past few days.
CONJUNCTION (PANUGTONG)
CONJUNCTION
A part of speech which includes words that
connect words, phrases or clauses together.
Conjunctions are referred to as the linguistic
devices that create cohesion in sentences and
paragraphs. In the Cebuano-Visayan language,
conjunction is translated as panugtong.
TYPES OF CONJUNCTION (MGA MATANG SA
PANUGTONG)
1. PANGSAMA NGA PANUGTONG
Pangsama nga Panugtong (coordinating
conjunction in English) joins two elements of
equal grammatical rank and syntactic
importance. They can join two verbs, two nouns,
two adjectives, two phrases, or two independent
clauses. Coordinating conjunctions (simply called
as coordinators) are easily remembered by the
acronym FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
and so.
In the Cebuano-Visayan language, the
commonly utilized coordinators are for (kay),
and (ug), but (apan/pero), and or (o). Aduna kitay
mga pananglitan:
• Nag-eskwela ko og BS Education, kay
ganahan ko magtudlo sa mga bata sa akong
komunidad.
• Kitang tanan gikapoy, apan kita
kinahanglan nga magpadayon.
2. PANGSAKUBOS NGA PANUGTONG
Subordinating conjunctions are used to connect
an independent clause with a dependent clause.
In other words, subordinating conjunctions (or
subordinators) are used to link subordinate
clauses with the main clauses in complex
sentences. The most common subordinating
conjunctions are patterned through the acronym
SWABI (since, when, after, because, and if).
While the SWABI subordinators are
commonly used in the English language, in the
Cebuano-Visayan language, however, the most
commonly utilized subordinators include
because (kay) and if (kung).
• Dili ko mu uban nila sa laag kay gikapoy
ko sa klase ganina.
3. PAMARIS NGA PANUGTONG
This type of conjunction always comes in a pair
and is used to join grammatically equal elements
in a sentence. These types of conjunctions give
emphasis to the combinations of two balanced
structures. They get their name from the fact
that they work together and relate one sentence
element to another. Common pairs include
either … or, neither … nor, not only … but also,
and both … and.
 In the Cebuano-Visayan sentences
translation, the use of correlative
conjunctions are often ignored or
disregarded. either…or
• Mahimo nimong pilion ang pula nga
sinina o ang asul nga sinina. (You can choose
either the red dress or the blue dress.)
PREPOSITION (PANDUGTONGAN)
WHAT IS PREPOSITION?
A preposition, translated as pangdugtongan in
the Cebuano-Visayan language, is one of the
parts of speech, which is a word used to link
nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words
within a sentence. They act to connect the
people, objects, time and locations of a
sentence.
TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS (MGA MATANG SA
PANDUGTONGAN)
1. PANDUGTONGAN SA ORAS
In the English language, pangdugtongan sa oras
is the preposition of time. These prepositions are
used to help indicate when something
happened, happens or will happen. Simply, these
are used to show relationship of time between
the nouns or pronouns to the other parts of the
sentence. The most commonly used prepositions
of time include in, on, and at.
In
In is used to refer to years, names of months,
seasons, centuries, and other times of days,
including morning and afternoon.
On
On is used to indicate specific names of days of
the week, fixed dates, and specific holidays.
At
At is used for specific or fixed time (hours). This
is also used with times of the day, including
noon, midnight, night, lunchtime, dinnertime,
sunrise, and sunset.
2. PANDUGTONGAN SA LUGAR, POSISYON
UG DIREKSYON
Prepositions of Place, Position and Direction. The
most common prepositions to indicate time –
on, at, in – are also the most common
prepositions to indicate position. These
prepositions are used to indicate the position or
placement of something.
On
On is used when referring to something with a
surface.
At
At is used when referring to something at a
specific point.
In
In is used when referring to something that is
inside or within confined boundaries. This could
be anything, even a country.
Prepositions are confusing; however, it is also
essential to note that several prepositions,
regardless of how difficult and confusing the
rules are in the English language, are realized as
a single form in the mother tongue, which
means that most prepositions are translated
into single Cebuano-Visayan word “sa.”
Examples:
The puppy is on the couch.
C-V: Ang itoy naa sa sopa (sofa).
I live in the Philippines.
C-V: Nagpuyo ko sa Pilipinas.
INTERJECTION (PANGTUAW)
INTERJECTION (PANGTUAW)
An interjection, pangtuaw in the
Cebuano-Visayan language, is a word that
expresses feeling or emotion and functions
independently of a sentence, and usually utilize
an exclamation point as a punctuation mark.
Interjection does not bear a grammatical
relationship with the preceding or succeeding
statement.
Although there are so many interjections
in the English language, it is essential to
remember that the use of interjections is
language specific, personal, and cultural. With
this in mind, most interjections in the English
language do not occur in Philippine languages, in
Cebuano-Visayan language, for instance.
INTERJECTIONS (PANGTUAW)
INTERJECTION 1 AGAY! (OUCH)
INTERJECTION 2 AGUY! (UH OH!)
INTERJECTION 3 HAY!
INTERJECTION 4 HOY!
 INTERJECTION 5 SIMBAKO! (GOD A. Definition of Semantics
FORBID!)
According to Different Authors
AGAY! (OUCH) Semantics is the branch of linguistics that
studies the meaning of words, phrases, and
Expresses sudden physical pain.
sentences. The following are some of the
EXAMPLE: (Agay! Sakitas akong ulo gyud.) definitions of semantics according to different
authors:
AGUY! (UH OH!)
1. Lobner (2002) defined semantics as the
Used to express dismay, and sometimes used part of linguistics that is concerned with the
differently rather than dismay depending on the meaning.
context.
2. Stringer (2019) said that semantics is the
EXAMPLE: (Aguy! Naunsa naman ni?!), (Aguy! study of how language is used to represent
Mapriso ka!) meaning.
HAY! 3. Saeed (1997) simply explained that
semantics is the study of meaning
Used to express exasperation or frustration.
communicated through the use of language.
EXAMPLE: (Hay! Kapuya kaayo rong adlawa
4. For Kreidler (1998), linguistic semantics
oy.)
is the study of how languages organize and
HOY! express meanings.
Used to attract or gain someone’s attention. 5. Irawan, et al., (2020) elucidated that
semantics is the study of the meaning or any
EXAMPLE: (Hoy! Gitawag tawn ka nako.)
meaning contained in a language, code, or other
SIMBAKO! sort of representation.
“God forbid!” and “knock on wood.” 6. Hussain & Sajid (2015) described
semantics as simply the study of meaning of the
EXAMPLE: Simbako! Ayaw gyud intawon.
language and is concerned with the relationship
between signifiers, such as words, phrases,
signs, symbols, denotations, or what they
The Semantics of a Language in Cebuano- represent.
Visayan
B. Theories of Meaning by Tserdanelis & Wong
What comes into your mind when you hear the (2004)
word “semantics?”
Tserdanelis & Wong (2004) said that in order to
understand what meaning in a language is, it is
helpful to understand various aspects of
meaning.
• Meaning communicates information about the
world around us. We refer to persons, places,
and both concrete and abstract ideas or
concepts, and their properties or characteristics.
A language is a system of symbols that stand for
other things.
• Meaning is a mental image or concept of
something. Hence, meaning is both cognitive
and psychological.
• Meaning is a social phenomenon. Meaning
comes into play in the relationship or knowledge
shared between the speaker and the hearer,
between the reader and the text, or the
individual in relation to the environment.
• The meaning of words and sentences have
various relationships among them. Examples of
these relationships are our categories of words
or expressions that mean the same (synonyms)
or differently (antonyms). A sentence or
utterance can either be interpreted or said in its
interrogative or declarative form.
• Meaning can be studied in the words of a
language and in the sentences that can be
constructed in that language.
C. Semantic Features
Words are generally categorized using the
knowledge we gained from understanding their
meanings. With this in mind, semantic features
represent the basic conceptual components of
meaning for any lexical item or terms. Semantic
features in linguistics helps to explain how
words that share certain features may be
members of the same semantic domain, such as
the part of speech a particular word belongs,
gender of nouns, and many others. Let us take a
look on the following examples:
Semantic Features Examples
Part of Speech – Nouns Cow, house, car, lapis, sapa,
libro, eskwelahan
Part of Speech – Verbs Run, catch, climb, lamesa.
langoy, suwat, katawa
Gender of Nouns – Masculine Sir, lion, peacock, brother,
hero, man
Gender of Nouns - Feminine Ma’am, lioness, peahen,
sister, heroine, womanC-V Translation: Gibisbisan ni Shyna ang mga
Based on the examples, words are classified
according to the semantic feature they share:
parts of speech which include the nouns and
verbs, as well as the gender of nouns.
D. Semantic Roles
Also known as thematic or participant roles,
semantic roles pertain to the roles of words,
including noun and noun phrases, which perform
or fulfill roles with respect to the action or state
described by a verb within a given situation or
context of use (Yule, 1996). These role types
include the following:
1. Agent. The entity that intentionally carries out
the action of the verb; the doer, which can either
be human or non-human entities that cause
actions voluntarily.
C-V Translation: Gihimo ni Mariana ang iyang
buluhaton. Eng Translation: Mariana made her
assignment.
C-V Translation: Giuli ni Lyka ang magasin
ngadto kang George.
Eng Translation: Lyka handed the magazine back
to George.
2. Theme. The entity that in involved in or
affected by the action, or the direct receiver of
an action. The theme can also be an entity that is
being described (i.e. not performing the action).
C-V Translation: Gipatay ni Mary ang uk-ok sa
hilak,
Eng Translation: Mary killed the cockroach on
the table.
bulak.
Eng Translation: Shyna watered the flowers.
3.Patient. The thing that action happens to; or
simply the thing that undergoes the process or
action of the verb.
C-V Translation: Nagluto si Lovelle og lamian nga
cake para nako. Eng Translation: Lovelled baked
a delicious cake for me.
C-V Translation: Ang chef nag-andam og lamiang
pagkaon.
Eng Translation: The chef prepared a sumptuous
meal.
4.Instrument. An instrument or a thing involved
or used in completing or accomplishing the
action.
C-V Translation: Gipatay ni Mary ang uk-ok sa
lamesa gamit ang silhig.
Eng Translation: Mary killed the cockroach on
the table using the broom.
C-V Translation: Gipanitan ni Raul ang mangga
gamit ang kutsilyo.
Eng Translation: Raul peeled the mango with a
knife.
5.Experiencer. The experiencer of an event or
the entity who has a feeling, perception or state.
This is also the entity experiencing some
psychological state. Remember that if we see,
know, hear, feel or enjoy something, we’re not
really performing a direct action (hence we are
not agent), but rather an experiencer.
C-V Translation: Nakadungog ka anang kasaba?
Eng Translation: Did you hear that noise?
C-V Translation: Naguol ang bata.
Eng Translation: The boy feels sad.
6.Force. The non-volitional or non-human entity
which caused the event or action but not the
agent.
C-V Translation: Gihuyop sa hangin ang balon
paingon sa langit. Eng Translation: The wind
blew the balloon up to the sky.
C-V Translation: Giguba sa linog ang mga
imprastruktura.
Eng Translation: The earthquake destroyed the
infrastructures.
7.Source. The place of origin of the object of a
transfer event. Remember that source may also
refer to a person as the origin.
C-V Translation: Nahulog si Debby sa Eng Translation: Lycel handed the pencil back to C-V Translation: Bag-ong modelo sa EO ang
lingkuranan. Lessete. eyeglasses ni Jann Rio.

Eng Translation: Debby fell off the chair. 9.Path. The route by which something moves. Eng Translation: Jann Rio's eyeglasses are a new
Path is the semantic role describing the locale EO model.
C-V Translation: Nagdagan ang akong kuting
transversed in motion.
gikan sa tanaman hangtod sa kusina. E. Lexical Relations
C-V Translation: Mitabok ang sakayan ilawom sa
Eng Translation: My kitten run from the garden Lexical relations describe the relationship among
taytayan.
to the kitchen. word meanings. It is the study of how lexicon is
Eng Translation: The boat crosses under the managed and how the lexical meanings of lexical
8.Goal. The destination of an object of a transfer
bridge. items are related each other. There are several
event; simply the place or direction to which
types of lexical relations, such as synonymy,
something goes. Remember that goal may also C-V Translation: Ang bata mikamang tabok sa
antonymy, hyponymy, prototypes, and many
refer to person as the destination. kwarto.
others (Palmer, 1976).
C-V Translation: Nagdagan ang akong kuting Eng Translation: The baby crawled across the
Synonymy
gikan sa tanaman hangtod sa kusina. room.
Synonyms are two or more words whose
Eng Translation: My kitten run from the garden 10.Location. The location or place where the
meanings are closely related. "Sameness" may
to the kitchen. action of event takes place
not be "total sameness", hence, some synonyms
C-V Translation: Giuli ni Lycel ang lapis adto kang C-V Translation: Gipatay ni Mary ang uk-ok sa cannot be interchangeably used. Incorrect use
Lessete. lamesa gamit ang silhig. of synonyms may result to the oddness of
meaning of the sentence; simply making the
Eng Translation: Mary killed the cockroach on sentence semantically incorrect.
Gradable Non-Gradable Reversibles
the table using the broom.
Antonyms Antonyms
Examples: gigantic – big tiny – small
Are typically Also known as These pairs of C-V Translation: Nagluto si Lovelle og lamian nga
pairs of complementary antonyms cold – freezing
cake sa kusina. Eng Translation: Lovelled baked
adjectives antonyms, are simply mean
a delicious cake in the kitchen. Observe the examples below:
that can be pairs of words “doing the
qualified by that are reverse of the • My father purchased a large automobile.
11. Possessor. If someone owns or has
adverbs, such opposite in other.”
something, that object is in some sense located
as very, quite, meaning, cannot • My dad bought a big car.
extremely, be graded and with that person, whether physically or mentally.
surprisingly, are mutually This is simply the entity, more usually a human • Sandy had only one answer correct on the test.
and many exclusive. entity receiving or possessing something.
others. • Sandy had only one reply correct on the test.
Examples: Examples: Examples: C-V Translation: Gucci ang bag ni Pauline.
good – bad daughter – son entrance – Antonymy
long – short girl – boy exit lengthen Eng Translation: Pauline's bag is a Gucci.
hot – cold true – false – shorten tie –
untie
 Antonyms are two forms that have
opposite meanings. There are three kinds of
antonyms as presented below:
Hyponymy
Hyponymy is the state or phenomenon that
shows the relationship between more general
terms and the more specific instances of it. In
simpler terms, when the meaning of one form
includes the meaning of another, one word is the
hyponym of the other. The general term is called
the hypernyms, while the specific examples are
called the hyponyms. Take a look on the
examples below to further understand what
hyponym is:
• The word flower is a hyperym. The
hyponyms of flower include rose,
gumamela, santan, and many others.
This can also be represented through a
hierarchal representation.
FLOWER
ROSE SANTA
GUMAMELA
N Tie
Prototypes
Prototypes are concepts that closely
matches the defining characteristics of a
particular concept. The word bird is a hyponym
for chicken, duck, parrot, eagle, ostrich, or
penguin. But these are not the best examples of
prototypes for bird. In the United States, the
closest example for a bird is a robin. In the
Philippines, it is the maya bird. Cultural
variations influence the interpretation or use of
prototypes of words. Given the word clothing, a
Japanese will mention the kimono, the Chinese
will say cheongsam, and a Filipino will identify
the barong Tagalog. In the Philippines, the
tomato, which is a fruit is classified as a
vegetable because it does not have the usual
sweet taste of a fruit and it is mostly used for
staple main courses made from fish, chicken, or
pork. Hence, speakers will vary in their use of
prototypes.
Homophony
This term describes two or more words with
different spellings and meanings but with similar
pronunciations. Some examples of homophones
include:
write – right buy – bye
sun – son for – four
cell – sell male – mail
Homonymy
Refers to a word of one form or spelling
but has different meanings. Examples of
homonyms are the uses of the word:
o referring to a man's clothing accessory
(i.e. necktie)
o equal scores in a game or competition
o to tie (used as a verb)
Bat
o A piece of equipment used in sports
o A flying nocturnal mammal
Race
o A running competition
o An ethnic group
Polysemy
Refers to one form (written or spoken)
having multiple meanings related by extension.
For example, the word head, this is used to refer
to the part of the body above the shoulders, the
top of a glass of a beer, or the person on top of a
company or department. Other examples of
polysemy is the word foot, which can be used to
refer to a foot of a person, a bed, or of a
mountain. Collocations. Pertains to the words in
language which tend to occur with other words.
Some collocations are specific to a people who
use a language. In the U.S., red collocates with
white and blue, the colors of the flag. Other
examples are fresh air, knife and fork, enough
already, biting cold, and many more. For
example:
• table – chair • salt – pepper
• hammer – nail • husband –
wife
• bread – butter • spoon – fork