Mathematics in the Modern World
Fibonacci Numbers in Nature
Lesson 1: Introduction to Mathematics
 Mathematics is not all about numbers.
Rather, it is more about reasoning, making
logical inferences and generalizations,
and seeing relationships in both the
visible and invisible patterns in the
natural world.
 Mathematics goes beyond arithmetic. It is a
language by which the universe is elegantly
designed. Its value transcends the
intellectual, the practical, and even the
aesthetic standards.
 David Hilbert, who influenced modern
mathematics within his axiomatic treatment
of geometry. Believed to have a dyscalculia
(a disability of learning and comprehending
arithmetic),
 Hilbert used abstraction rather than explicit
computations to prove and establish
essential mathematical theories that led to
breakthrough discoveries in both applied
mathematics and sciences.
Systemizing Patterns Through Mathematics
Types of Patterns:
• Numeric Patterns
• Geometric Pattern
Numerical Patterns: 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30,
31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31
Geometrical Patterns:
 Fibonacci was an Italian
mathematician. He was really named
Leonardo de Pisa but his nickname was
Fibonacci.
 About 800 years ago, in 1202, he wrote
himself a Math problem all about
rabbits that went like this:
 "A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a
place surrounded by a wall. How many
pairs of rabbits can be produced from
that pair in a year if it is supposed that
every month each pair breed a new pair
from which the second month on
becomes productive?" (Liberabbaci, pp.
283-284)
 Fibonacci’s sequence is made by adding
two previous numbers together to create
the next, staring with zero and one: 1, 2,
3, 5, 8, 13
 The sequence Fibonacci created may not
have solved his rabbit reproduction
problem, but other mathematicians
looked at his numbers and started seeing
them all over the place.
1. SYMMETRY – a sense of harmonious
and beautiful proportion of balance or an
object is invariant to any various
transformations (reflection, rotation or
scaling.)
a.) Bilateral Symmetry: a symmetry in
which the left and right sides of the
organism can be divided into approximately
mirror image of each other along the
midline. Symmetry exists in living things
such as in insects, animals, plants, flowers
and others. Animals have mainly bilateral or
vertical symmetry, even leaves of plants and 4. TESSELLATION – a tessellation is a
some flowers such as orchids. repeating pattern of polygons that covers a
flat surface with no gaps or overlaps. Think
b.) Radial Symmetry (or rotational
about when you file a floor. No gaps and no
symmetry): a symmetry around a fixed point
overlapping tiles! There are regular
known as the center and it can be classified
tessellations (all the same shape tiles) and
as either cyclic or dihedral. Plants often have
irregular (a mix of shapes).
radial or rotational symmetry, as to flowers
and some group of animals. A five-fold
symmetry is found in the echinoderms, the
Lesson 2: Fibonacci Sequence, Proportion
group in which includes starfish (dihedral-
and Golden Ratio
D5 symmetry), sea urchins and sea lilies.
Radial symmetry suits organism like sea
anemones whose adults do not move and
Proportion:
jellyfish (dihedral-D4 symmetry). Radial
symmetry is also evident in different kinds - It is generally used to express the relation
offlowers.2. of parts to each other or to a whole which is
built upon similarity of two ratios.
2. FRACTALS – a curve or geometric
figure, each part of which has the same - The Greeks claimed that the most visually
statistical character as the whole. A fractal is appealing division of the line had the
a never-ending pattern found in nature. The property that the ratio of the length of the
exact same shape is replicated in a process long piece to the length of the short piece is
called “self-similarity.” The pattern repeats the same as the ratio of the length of the
itself over and over again at different scales. entire line segment to the length of the long
For example, a tree grows by repetitive piece.
branching. This same kind of branching can
be seen in lightning bolts and the veins in
your body. Examine a single fern or an
aerial view of an entire river system and
you’ll see fractal patterns.
3. SPIRALS - A logarithmic spiral or
growth spiral is a self-similar spiral curve
which often appears in nature. It was first
described by Rene Descartes and was later
investigated by Jacob Bernoulli. A spiral is a
curved pattern that focuses on a center point
and a series of circular shapes that revolve
around it. Examples of spirals are pine
cones, pineapples, hurricanes. The reason The number patterns found in the shallow
for why plants uses a spiral form is because diagonals of the Pascal’s triangle is a
they are constantly trying to grow but stay number pattern involving Fibonacci
secure. numbers. Fibonacci numbers appear
everywhere – in leaves, flower petals, seeds
of sunflower, scales of pineapple, and many
Binet’s Formula
others.
1+ √ 5
φ (phi)= ≈ 1 .618 0 339887 . . .
2
Fibonacci Sequence
This pattern was popularized in Europe by
Leonardo of Pisa also known as Leonardo
Fibonacci. He is one of the most influential
mathematicians of the Middle Ages.
His book Liber Abaci played a role in the
adoption of the Arabic decimal system of
counting. In this book, you will find the
famous problem of breeding rabbits which
become instrumental in the study of patterns
and Divine proportion. The sequence is Let n = 25
found by adding the previous two numbers 25
φ
of the sequence together. It looks like this: 0, F 25= =¿ ¿
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34... And on it goes. √5

Fibonacci in Flower and Leaf

Finding the nth term in a Fibonacci
Arrangement
Sequence
F n=F n−1+ F n−2 The Fibonacci sequence plays a vital role in
phyllotaxis, which studies the arrangement
F 18=F18−1 + F18−2 of leaves, branches, flowers or seeds in
plants, with the main aim of highlighting the
F 18=F17 + F 16
existence of regular patterns.

2584 =1597 + F 16
F 16=2584-1597

F 16=987

But how can we find any Fibonacci number Arrangement of leaves on a stem. Credits:
without enumerating the previous numbers? The Fibonacci sequence in phyllotaxis –
For example, how can we find the 25th Laura Resta (Degree Thesis in
Fibonacci number without knowing F 24and biomathematics)
F 23?
If we cut banana and apple, then Fibonacci
appears in the number of sections 3 for
banana and 5 for apple. On the other hand,
the number of hexagonal nubs arranged in
spirals for pineapple also exhibit Fibonacci
number. Similar case is observed on spirals
of pinecones which contain spirals from the
center with arms 5 arms and 8 arms or 8
arms and 13 arms.
Let us visualize these numbers using square
tiles. Starting with one square tile then
another, together they form a 1 x 2
rectangle. On top of this rectangle, we
construct a 2 x 2 square, beneath that a 5 x 5
square. If we continue to do this and connect
opposing diagonals continuously it will
reveal a Fibonacci spiral. This spiral could
be seen a lot in nature, architecture, arts,
human body and beyond
If we are going to divide the two dimensions
8 and 13, notice that its just like dividing
two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. Doing
this to the highest possible pair of Fibonacci
numbers will give us the GOLDEN RATIO.
The golden ratio is approximately equal to
1.618 represented by the Greek letter Phi (
φ ¿.
Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio
Scholars during the time of Pythagoras
asked the following question: How can a
line segment be divided into two pieces that
have the most appeal and balance?
The golden ratio is a term used to describe approximations will lead us to its reciprocal
the relationship between two numbers. If 1
= 0.618....
you have a number a and a lower number b φ
then the two are in the golden ratio if the
quotient of these numbers somehow near to
1.618. So basically, any ratio which comes
close to this value is claimed to be perfectly
proportioned or it is the most visually
pleasing to the eye.

Therefore, the Fibonacci sequence is

incorporated to the golden ratio. If Fibonacci
sequence is present in nature, then we can
see something which brings balance and
harmony. The natural world is really a
The Golden Ratio wonderful place to live in.

The Golden ratio is sometimes coined as the

Divine Proportion, Golden Mean, Golden Calculating Golden Ratio
Rectangle, Golden Spiral and Golden
Section. The appearance of this ratio in Suppose the line segment is divided
music, in patterns of human behavior, even according to the golden ratio. If the length of
in the proportion of the human body, all the longer piece is 5cm, how long is the
point to its universality as a principle of entire segment? Answer: 8.1cm
good structure and design. Solution:
Let a be the longer line segment = 5cm.
Now take the ratio of Because the line segment is in the golden
larger value 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 ratio, we know that
=
smaller value 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 a a
and determine the decimal approximation. =φ and b= , then
b φ
What do you notice? 5
b= ≈3.09 ≈ 3.1 cm
Do the same with the ratio of 1.618 ...
smaller value 1 1 2 3 5 89 The entire segment has length a + b so 5cm
= ... . What do
larger value 1 2 3 5 8 144 + 3.1cm = 8.1cm
you notice?

Lesson 3: Mathematical Language and

The first set of approximations will lead to Symbols
the value of φ = 1.618…. The other set of
 4. Grouping Symbols ( ), { }, [ ] 5. Relation
Symbols
Mathematical language is a system used to
communicate mathematical ideas. It consists
of some natural language using technical
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS AND
terms (mathematical terms) and grammatical
SENTENCES
conventions, supplemented by a highly
specialized symbolic notation for
mathematical formulas.

Characteristics of Mathematical
Language
1. Math language is non-temporal. It has no
past, present and future tense unlike in the
English language. There is no conjugation of
words and mathematics statements are
presented simple as “is”. Math language Mathematical Expressions and Sentences
carries no emotional content. In studying the mathematical language, we
2. It has no equivalent words for joy or will make a very broad classification
sadness. Your aesthetic experience like between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics (used to
mathematicians about math is only a name mathematical objects of interest) and
subjective experience. Good values are the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state
learned thru mathematics but cannot be complete mathematical thoughts)
found in a mathematical language.
3. Math language is precise. Statements are
exact and accurate. As you can observe math
language is clearly stated and lacks
uncertainty.
4. Math language is concise. No need for
unnecessary words and briefly stated.
5. Math language is powerful. Complex
ideas are well expressed.

Parts of Speech in Mathematics

1. Numbers or constants 3, 5, 1/4, 10
2. Variables x, y, z
3. Operation Symbols +, -, x,
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION A
mathematical expression does not state a
complete thought; it does not make sense to
ask if an expression is true or false. The
most common expression types are numbers,
sets, and functions. Numbers have lots of 1. context - this is the context in which we
different names: for example, the are working, or the particular topics being
expressions 5, 2 + 3, 10, (6 – 2) + 1 and 1 + studied, and
1 + 1 + 1 all look different but are all just
2. convention - where mathematicians and
different names for the same number.
scientists have decided that particular
symbols will have particular meaning.
MATHEMATICAL SENTENCE It is the
analogue of an English sentence; it is a
MATHEMATICAL CONVENTION
correct arrangement of mathematical
Mathematical Convention is a fact, name,
symbols that states a complete thought.
notation, or usage which is generally agreed
upon by mathematicians. PEMDAS
(Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication,
Sentences have verbs. In the mathematical
Division, Addition and Subtraction) is an
sentence ‘3+4=7, 3+4=7’, the verb is ‘=’. A
example. All mathematical names and
sentence can be (always) true, (always)
symbols are conventional
false, or sometimes true/sometimes false.
Examples: 1 + 2 = 3 True 1 + 2 = 4 False x
= 2 Sometime true/sometimes false. It is true
when x = 2, and false otherwise. x + 3 = 3 +
x Always true, no matter what value is
chosen for x

Conventions in Mathematical Language

Mathematics has its own language, much of
which we are already familiar with. For
example, the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
are part of our everyday lives. Whether we
refer to 0 as ‘zero’, ‘nothing’, or ‘O’ as in a
telephone number, we understand its Lesson 4: The Language of Sets
meaning.

Set - a group or collection of objects. A =

There are many symbols in mathematics,
and most are used as a precise form of
shorthand. We need to be confident when
using these symbols, and to gain that
confidence we need to understand their
meaning. To understand their meaning there
are two things to help us:
{spring, summer, fall, winter} Elements
(members of the set) - these are the objects
that belong in a set.
Set is a well-defined collection of objects if
it is possible to determine whether any given
item is an element of the set.
The set of great songs is not well-defined. It
is not possible to determine whether any
given song is an element of the set or is not
an element of the set because there is no
standard method for making such a
judgment
The statement “4 is an element of the set of
natural numbers” can be written using
mathematical notation as 4 ∈ N. The symbol
∈ is read as “is an element of.” To state that
“ -3 is not an element of the set of natural
numbers,” we use ∉ as the symbol for “is
not an element of”, and write -3 ∉N.
Natural Numbers
The set of natural numbers is also called the
set of counting numbers. The three dots ...
are called an ellipsis and indicate that the
elements of the set continue in a manner
suggested by the elements that are listed. N
={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}
Integers
The integers ..., -4, -3, -2, -1 are negative
integers. The integers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... are
positive integers. Note that the natural
numbers and the positive integers are the
same set of numbers. The integer zero is
neither a positive nor a negative integer.
Rational Numbers
If a number in decimal form terminates or
repeats a block of digits, then the number is
a rational number. Rational numbers can
also be written in the form , where p and q
are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, =0.24
and =0.272727… or 0.27 are rational
numbers. The bar over the 27 means that the
block of digits 27 repeats without end; that
is, 0_.2_7 = 0.27272727.
Irrational Numbers
A decimal that neither terminates nor repeats
is an irrational number. For instance,
0.35335333533335. . . is a nonterminating,
nonrepeating decimal and thus is an
irrational number. Every real number is
either a rational number or an irrational
number.
How do we describe a set?
1. Listing Method: In this method all or
partial members of the set are listed.
Examples:
a. Let R be the set of Natural number less
than 10. = {1,2,3,4,5, 6,7,8,9}, complete
listing
b. Let H be the set of counting numbers less
than 1000. = {1,2,3, . . ., 999}, Partial listing
c. Let N be the set of Natural Numbers. =
{1,2,3, . . .}, Partial listing
2. Set Builder Method: In this method the f} = {e, f, d}. 4. Equivalent Sets: Set A is
set is described by listing the properties that equivalent to set B, denoted by A _ B, if and
describe the elements of the set. Set-Builder only if A and B have the same number of
form has two parts elements
a. A variable, n, 𝑒𝑡𝑐. representing any
elements of the set.
Lesson 5: Functions and Binary
b. A property which defines the elements of Operations
the set

Function: It is a relation in which each

element of the domain corresponds to
exactly one element of the range.

Definition of Terms All functions are relations, but not all

relations are functions.
1. The empty set, or null set, is the set that
contains no elements. The symbol ∅ or {} is
used to represent the empty set. As an Function does not allow an element of its
example of the empty set, consider the set of domain to have two or more corresponding
natural numbers that are negative integers. elements in the range. However, it does not
2. A set is finite if the number of elements in restrict two or more elements in the domain
the set is a whole number. The cardinal to correspond to the same element in the
number of a finite set is the number of range.
elements in the set. The cardinal number of
a finite set A is denoted by the notation
n(A). For instance, if A = {1, 4, 6, 9}, then Functions: one-to-many, many-to-one.
n(A) = 4. In this case, A has a cardinal
number of 4, which is sometimes stated as
“A has a cardinality of 4.”
3. Equal Sets: Set A is equal to set B,
denoted by A = B, if and only if A and B
have the same elements. For instance {d, e,
 Binary Operations
The word binary means composition of two
pieces. It is an operation that takes two input
elements from a set and gives a unique result
that also belongs to the same set.

Binary Operations
• Addition (+)
• Subtraction (-)
• Multiplication (x)
• Division (÷)

Properties of Addition and Multiplication

as Binary Operations on the Set of Real
We can represent functions in different Numbers
ways.
1. A table of values
CLOSURE PROPERTY
2. Ordered pairs
Addition: The sum of any two real numbers
3. Graph is also a real number.
4. An Equation 12 + 34 = 46
Multiplication: The product of any two real
DOMAIN (input) numbers is also a real number.

It is the set of all values in the first quantity 7 x 20 = 140

or the x- value or x-coordinate in the ordered
pair (x, y) or the abscissa in the xy
plane/coordinate plane. COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY
Addition: For any two real numbers x and y,
x+y=y+x
RANGE (output)
1.5 + 7.8 = 7.8 + 1.5 9.3 = 9.3
It is the set of all values in the second
quantity or the y- value or y-coordinate in Multiplication: The product of any two real
the ordered pair (x, y) or the ordinate in the numbers is also a real number.
xy-plane/coordinate plane.
8 x 5 = 5 x 8 40 = 40
 Using the identity property, we may write an
equivalent expression of a mathematical
Applying the commutative property of
expression by substituting an expression that
addition, we may write the equivalent
is equal to the additive identity or
expression of 8m + 7n as 7n + 8m. What do
multiplicative identity.
you think is the equivalent expression of
(12a) ∙ (17b)? (12a) ∙ (17b) = (17b) ∙ (12a)
204ab = 204ab

ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY
Addition: For any two real numbers x, y and
z, x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.
3+ (10 + 9) = (3 + 10) + 9 3 + 19 = 13 + 9
22 = 22
Multiplication: For any two real numbers x,
y and z, x ∙ (y ∙ z) = (x ∙ y) ∙ z.
3 ∙ (9 ∙ 6) = (3 ∙ 9) ∙ 6 3 ∙ 54= 27 ∙ 6 162 =
162

DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY OF
MULTIPLICATION OVER ADDITION
For any two real numbers x, y and z, x (y +
IDENTITY PROPERTY z) = xy + xz. 1. a(- x + y - z) = -ax +ay –az
Addition: For any real number x, x + 0 = x. 2.
The number “0” is called the additive -5(7l + 8m + 9n) = -35l -40m -45n
identity.
78 + 0 = 78
INVERSE OF BINARY OPERATIONS
Multiplication: For any real number x, x ∙ 1
= x. The number “1” is called the
multiplicative identity.
98 ∙ 1 = 98