138 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

Suggested Practical Assignments

Note: These assignments are qualitative in nature.

Assignment 1
To compare the effectiveness of different magnetic core materials.
Apparatus:
1  coil of wire of known number of turns
1  d.c. psu
1  ammeter
1  set of laboratory weights
1  set of different ferromagnetic cores, suitable for the coil used.
Method:
1 Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.23.
2 Adjust the coil current carefully until the magnetic core just holds the
smallest weight in place. Note the value of current and weight.
3 Using larger weights, in turn, increase the coil current until each weight is
just held by the core. Record all values of weight and corresponding current.
4 Repeat the above procedure for the other core materials.
5 Tabulate all results. Calculate and tabulate the force of attraction and mmf in
each case.
6 Write an assignment report, commenting on your findings, and comparing
the relative effectiveness of the different core materials.

core

 I
A

d.c.
p.s.u. N

weight

Fig. 4.23

Assignment 2
To plot a magnetisation curve, and initial section of a hysteresis loop, for a
magnetic circuit.
Apparatus:
1  magnetic circuit of known length, and containing a coil(s) of known number
of turns
1  variable d.c. psu
1  Hall Effect probe
1  ammeter
1  DVM
 Magnetic Fields and Circuits 139

Method:
1 Ensure that the core is completely demagnetised before starting.
2 Zero the Hall probe, monitoring its output with the DVM.
3 Connect the circuit as in Fig. 4.24.
4 Increase the coil current in 0.1 A steps, up to 2 A. Record the DVM reading at
each step.
Note: If you ‘overshoot’ a desired current setting. DO NOT then reduce the
current back to that setting. Record the value actually set, together with the
corresponding DVM reading.
5 Reduce the current from 2 A to zero, in 0.1 A steps. Once more, if you
overshoot a desired current setting, DO NOT attempt to correct it.
6 Reverse the connections to the psu, and increase the reversed current in
small steps until the DVM indicates zero.
Note: The Hall effect probe output (as measured by the DVM) represents the
flux density in the core. The magnetic field strength, H, may be calculated
from NI/.

probe
Hall
Probe
 Circuit
A V

d.c.
p.s.u.
magnetic
circuit

Fig. 4.24

7 Plot a graph of DVM readings (B) versus H.

8 Submit a full assignment report.
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 Chapter 5
Electromagnetism

Learning Outcomes
This chapter concerns the principles and laws governing electromagnetic induction and the
concepts of self and mutual inductance.
On completion of this chapter you should be able to use these principles to:
1 Understand the basic operating principles of motors and generators.
2 Carry out simple calculations involving the generation of voltage, and the production of
force and torque.
3 Appreciate the significance of eddy current loss.
4 Determine the value of inductors, and apply the concepts of self and mutual inductance to
the operating principles of transformers.
5 Calculate the energy stored in a magnetic field.
6 Explain the principle of the moving coil meter, and carry out simple calculations for the
instrument.
7 Describe the operation of a wattmeter and simple ohmmeter.

5.1 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

It is mainly due to the pioneering work of Michael Faraday, in the
nineteenth century, that the modern technological world exists as
we know it. Without the development of the generation of electrical
power, such advances would have been impossible. Thus, although the
concepts involved with electromagnetic induction are very simple, they
have far-reaching influence. Faraday’s law is best considered in two
interrelated parts:
1 The value of emf induced in a circuit or conductor is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linking with it.
2 The polarity of such an emf, induced by an increasing flux, is
opposite to that induced by a decreasing flux. 141
142 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

The key to electromagnetic induction is contained in part one of the

law quoted above. Here, the words ‘rate of change’ are used. If there is
no change in flux, or the way in which this flux links with a conductor,
then no emf will be induced. The proof of the law can be very simply
demonstrated. Consider a coil of wire, a permanent bar magnet and a
galvanometer as illustrated in Figs. 5.1 and 5.2.

Fig. 5.1

Fig. 5.2

Consider the magnet being moved so that it enters the centre of

the coil. When this is done it will be seen that the pointer of the
galvo deflects in one direction. This deflection of the pointer is only
momentary, since it only occurs whilst the magnet is moving. The
galvo is of course a current measuring device. However, any current
flowing through it must be due to a voltage between its terminals. Since
there is no other source of emf in the circuit, then it must be concluded
that an emf has been induced or created in the coil itself. The resulting
current indicated by the galvo depends on the value of this emf. It will
also be observed that when the magnet is stationary (either inside or
outside the coil) the galvo does not deflect. Hence, emf is induced into
the coil only when the magnet is in motion.
 Electromagnetism 143

When the magnet is withdrawn from the coil, the galvo will again be
seen to deflect momentarily. This time, the deflection will be in the
opposite direction. Provided that the magnet is removed at the same
rate as it was inserted, then the magnitudes of the deflections will be
the same. The polarities of the induced emfs will be opposite to each
other, since the current flow is reversed. Thus far, we have confirmation
that an emf is induced in the coil when a magnetic flux is moving
relative to it. We also have confirmation of part two of the law.
In order to deduce the relationship between the value of induced
emf and the rate of change of flux, the magnet needs to be moved at
different speeds into and out of the coil. When this is done, and the
resulting magnitudes of the galvo deflection noted, it will be found that
the faster the movement, the greater the induced emf.
This simple experiment can be further extended in three ways. If the
magnet is replaced by a more powerful one, it will be found that for
the same speed of movement, the corresponding emf will be greater.
Similarly, if the coil is replaced with one having more turns, then for a
given magnet and speed of movement, the value of the emf will again be
found to be greater. Finally, if the magnet is held stationary within the
coil, and the coil is then moved away, it will be found that an
emf is once more induced in the coil. In this last case, it will also be
found the emf has the same polarity as obtained when the magnet was
first inserted into the stationary coil. This last effect illustrates the point
that it is the relative movement between the coil and the flux that induces
the emf.
The experimental procedure described above is purely qualitative.
However, if it was refined and performed under controlled conditions,
then it would yield the following results:
The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the value
of magnetic flux, the rate at which this flux links with the coil, and the
number of turns on the coil. Expressed as an equation we have:

N d
e volt (5.1)
dt

Notes:
1 The symbol for the induced emf is shown as a lower-case letter e.
This is because it is only present for the short interval of time
during which there is relative movement taking place, and so has
only a momentary value.
2 The term d/dt is simply a mathematical means of stating ‘the
rate of change of flux with time’. The combination N/dt is often
referred to as the ‘rate of change of flux linkages’.
3 The minus sign is a reminder that Lenz’s law applies. This law is
described in the next section.
144 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

4 Equation (5.1) forms the basis for the definition of the unit of
magnetic flux, the weber, thus:
The weber is that magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one turn,
induces in it an emf of one volt when the flux is reduced to zero at a
uniform rate in one second.
In other words, 1 volt  1 weber/second or 1 weber  1 volt second.

5.2 Lenz’s Law

This law states that the polarity of an induced emf is always such that it
opposes the change which produced it. This is similar to the statement
in mechanics, that for every force there is an opposite reaction.

5.3 Fleming’s Righthand Rule

This is a convenient means of determining the polarity of an induced emf
in a conductor. Also, provided that the conductor forms part of a complete
circuit, it will indicate the direction of the resulting current flow.
The first finger, the second finger and the thumb of the right hand are
held out mutually at right angles to each other (like the three edges of
a cube as shown in Fig. 5.3). The First finger indicates the direction of
the Flux, the thuMb the direction of Motion of the conductor relative
to the flux, and the sECond finger indicates the polarity of the induced
Emf, and direction of Current flow. This process is illustrated in
Fig. 5.4, which shows the cross-section of a conductor being

thuMb

first finger

seCond finger

Fig. 5.3

Fig. 5.4
 Electromagnetism 145

moved vertically upwards at a constant velocity through the magnetic

field.
Note: The thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor
relative to the flux. Thus, the same result would be obtained from the
arrangement of Fig. 5.4 if the conductor was kept stationary and the
magnetic field was moved down.

Worked Example 5.1

Q The flux linking a 100 turn coil changes from 5 mWb to 15 mWb in a time of 2 ms. Calculate the average
emf induced in the coil; see Fig. 5.5.

Φ(mWb)

15

10 dΦ

5
dt

t(ms)
0 1 2

Fig. 5.5

A
N  100; d  (15  5)  103 Wb; dt  2  103 s

Nd 100  (15  5)  103

e volt 
dt 2  103
100  10  103

2  103
so e  500 V Ans

Note that if the flux was reduced from 15 mWb to 5 mWb, then the
term shown in brackets above would be 10. The resulting emf would
be 500 V. When quoting equation (5.1), the minus sign should always
be included. However, since it is often the magnitude of the induced
emf that is more important, it is normal practice to ignore the minus
sign in the subsequent calculation. One of the major exceptions to this
practice arises when considering the principles of operation of the
transformer.
146 Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles

Worked Example 5.2

Q A 250 turn coil is linked by a magnetic flux that varies as follows: an increase from zero to 20 mWb in
a time of 0.05 s; constant at this value for 0.02 s; followed by a decrease to 4 mWb in a time of 0.01 s.
Assuming that these changes are uniform, draw a sketch graph (i.e. not to an accurate scale) of the
variation of the flux and the corresponding emf induced in the coil, showing all principal values.

A
Firstly, the values of induced emf must be calculated for those periods when the
flux changes.

d1  (20  0)  103 Wb; dt1  0.05 s

d2  (4  20)  103 Wb; dt2  0.01 s

Nd1 Nd 2
e1  volt and e2  volt
dt1 dt2
250  20  103 250  (16 )  103
 
0.05 0.01
so e1 100 V and e2  400 V

The resulting sketch graph is shown in Fig. 5.6.

Φ(mWb)

20

t(ms)
0 50 70 80

e (V)

400

0 t(ms)

100

Fig. 5.6
 Electromagnetism 147

Worked Example 5.3

Q A coil when linked by a flux which changes at the rate of 0.1 Wb/s, has induced in it an emf of 100 V.
Determine the number of turns on the coil.
A
d
e  100 V;  0.1 Wb/s
dt

Nd
e
dt volt
e 100
so N  turns 
d/dt 0 .1
N  1000 Ans

Note that the minus sign has been ignored in the calculation. A negative
value for number of turns makes no sense.

5.4 EMF Induced in a Single Straight Conductor

Consider a conductor moving at a constant velocity v metre per second
at right angles to a magnetic field having the dimensions shown in
Fig. 5.7. The direction of the induced emf may be obtained using
Fleming’s righthand rule, and is shown in the diagram. Equation (5.1)
is applicable, and in this case, the value for N is 1.

Fig. 5.7

d
Thus, e  volt, and since  is constant
dt

then e  volt
t
but   BA weber
BA
so e 
t