CALCULATION AND VERIFICATION OF DISTANCE PROTECTION

SETTINGS BASED ON LINE IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENTS

Rainer Luxenburger 1, Wernich de Villiers 2,
1 2
Omicron, Germany Omicron, Austria,
rainer.luxenburger@omicron.at, wernich.devilliers@omicron.at

Abstract: In this paper, the execution of line impedance calculation and line impedance
measurement are pointed out. The different models are introduced and the equations to
transfer parameters from one model to another are given in order to avoid confusion. The
usage of the measured values is described considering typical parameters of protection
equipment for distance protection and fault locating. The impact of inaccurate settings is
illustrated by using calculations and case studies. Double-circuit lines have special
requirements according to the mutual zero sequence coupling and the additional line
parameter describing this coupling. The measurement and calculation of settings for
double-circuit lines is described.

Figure 2.1 shows the equivalent circuit diagram of

an unbalanced line. The model in Figure 2.1 is
1 INTRODUCTION
described by its equation
The impedances of overhead transmission lines ∆ U L = ZL I L respectively
and cables are needed for distance protection,
fault locators and power system calculation.  ∆ U L1   ZL11 ZL12 ZL13  I L1 
Inaccurate line impedances can cause      (1)
malfunctions of distance protection, wrong  ∆ U L2  =  ZL21 ZL22 ZL23  IL2 
displayed fault locations and faulty calculation  ∆U   Z ZL32  I 
ZL33 
results. The required values in symmetrical  L3   L31 L3 

components are the positive sequence impedance,
the zero sequence impedance and the zero
sequence coupling impedance (only for double-
circuit lines). These parameters can be determined
by measurement or by calculation. The calculation
of line impedances is based on ideal geometrical
assumptions like homogeneous ground resistivity
and continuous line geometry. Varying ground
resistivity, buried conductors and a missing earth
conductor between two towers are not considered
in the idealized impedance calculation, although
they have a strong impact on the real line
impedance. Therefore, the calculation method
does normally not provide capable and accurate
results which allow reliable protection settings and
fault location. A high accuracy of line impedance
values can be received by measuring line
impedances instead of calculating them.
Accurately measured zero sequence impedances
allow reliable and correct operation of distance
protection and fault locators.
where IL is the vector of currents, ∆UL is the vector
of longitudinal voltages and ZL is the impedance
matrix of the single-circuit line.
The impedance matrix ZL is symmetric
ZLik = ZLki (2)
The model of an unbalanced line is determined by
six parameters
• three diagonal elements ZL11, ZL22 and ZL33,
representing the impedances of the phase-to-
ground loops and
• three non-diagonal elements ZL12, ZL13 and
ZL23, representing the mutual coupling
between two phase-to-ground loops.

2 PHYSICAL MODEL OF AN UNBALANCED

LINE

In this section, the physical model of an

unbalanced line and the symbols used to describe Figure 2.1: Equivalent circuit diagram of a single-
its parameters are presented. Other models are circuit line containing only series impedances
described in section 5. Shunt admittances are
neglected as it is normally done for short-circuit
calculation and distance protection.

1
3 CALCULATION OF LINE IMPEDANCES
Line impedances can be calculated or measured.
The calculation of line impedances is based on
some assumptions which enable engineers to
calculate line impedances based on available data.
The equations used for line impedance
measurement and the presupposed assumptions
show the accuracy of line impedance calculation
and allow an assessment of the calculation results.
3.1 Calculation of Resistance
The resistance per unit length of a conductor can
be calculated with
ρ 1
R DC ' = = (3)
A σA
where
• A is the cross-section area of the conductor,
• ρ is the electrical resistivity and
• σ is the electrical conductivity.
Skin effect and the increase of resistivity with
temperature ϑ are normally also considered and
the resistance R’(f,ϑ) is used for calculations.
3.2 Calculation of the Inductance of a Loop
It is normally necessary to consider a loop in order
to calculate the imaginary part of an impedance.
The inductance per unit length of a loop consisting
of a pair of parallel wires can be calculated with
µo  1 d 
L' = ln +  (4)
π 4 r 
where
• µ0 is the vacuum permeability,
• d is the distance between wires and
• r is the wire radius.
Equation (4) is accurate and normally used for
calculation in power systems (low frequency
range).
The coupling inductance between two loops can
be calculated with [1]
µ 1  d d 
L' = o  + ln  1' 2 12'   (5)
2π  4  d12d1' 2'  
where
• d12 is the distance between the wires of the
first loop (index 1 and 2),
• d1’2’ is the distance between the wires of the
second loop (index 1’ and 2’),
• d12’ is the distance between wire 1 and wire 2’
and
• d1’2 is the distance between wire 1’ and wire 2.
2
Equations (3), (4) and (5) show that the geometry
of conductors is required for the calculation of
impedances.
3.3 Calculation of Phase-to-Phase Loops
The calculation of the phase-to-phase loops is
based on equations (3) and (4). For an overhead
transmission line or a cable, the distance between
conductors is normally known. The calculation of
the inductance is based on the distance between
the conductors of the different phases.
3.4 Calculation of Phase-to-Ground Loops
For a phase-to-ground loop, there is no metallic
return conductor with known geometry. Therefore,
the impedance is calculated based on the
calculation of magnetic and electrical field.
Assuming a homogeneous ground resistivity ρE,
which is independent from the position in ground,
the following approximation can be derived from [2]
µo µ  δ 1
Z LE ' = R '+ ω + jω o  ln +  (6)
8 2π  r 4 
where
• ZLE’ is the impedance of the phase-to-ground
loop,
• R’ is the resistance per unit length of the
phase conductor calculated in section 3.1,
• ω is the angular frequency,
• r is the radius of the phase conductor radius
and
• δ is the equivalent distance of current in
ground.
The equivalent distance of current in ground is
calculated with
ρE
δ = 1,85 (7)
ωµo
for
• frequency f = 50 Hz,
• ground resistivity ρE = 100 Ωm and
• vacuum permeability µ0 = 4π*10 Vs/Am
-7
the equivalent distance in ground is
δ = 931 m.
This means the calculation of phase-to-ground
loops assumes a return conductor in a distance of
δ = 931 m.
Equation (6) shows that the resistance of the
phase-to-ground loop is not impacted by the
ground resistivity ρE and is impacted by the angular
frequency ω. This can be understood considering
the fact that an infinite cross-section area of
ground is assumed and the “used” cross-section
area is determined by magnetic field effects.
Equation (6) is normally used for the calculation of
balanced lines. The equations used for calculation
of unbalanced lines result in similar values for line
impedances. The advantage of equation (6) is that
it shows the equivalent distance of the current in
ground.
Equation (6) and (7) allows the calculation of a
loop if the complete current returns in
homogeneous ground. That means there is no
ground wire.
3.5 Calculation with Ground Wires
Overhead transmission lines can have grounded
wires, and cables can have grounded shields. The
impedance of a loop of a wire parallel to ground
can be calculated based on equation (6).
Additional grounded conductors have to be
considered for line impedance calculation. For
overhead transmission lines with one ground wire
this could be done by calculating first a four-wire
system with no grounded wire. This system is
described by a 4x4-matrix Z4x4, the calculation of
elements of this matrix is based on the same
assumptions as in equation (6). The grounding of
the ground wire is considered by setting the
longitudinal voltage of this wire equal to zero. With
this assumption the impedance 3x3-matrix ZL in
equation (1) is calculated.
3.6 Assessment of Line Impedance
Calculation
The calculation of line impedances can be based
on the equations (3)-(7). These equations or
similar equations are normally used for line
impedance calculations in power systems. There
may be different looking equations but they are
based on the same assumptions and the results
are almost identical for relevant frequencies and
relevant geometries.
The calculation of line impedances
• is always based on a homogeneous ground
resistivity ρE, which is independent from the
position in ground.
• always leads to an equivalent distance in
ground which is about δ = 931 m (for f = 50 Hz
and ρE = 100 Ωm).
The accuracy of line impedance calculation
depends on the accuracy of the input geometry of
the calculation. The geometry can be an input
parameter like the distance between wires for
phase-to-phase loops. The geometry can also be
calculated based on assumptions like the
equivalent distance of ground current, which is a
virtual distance between the conductor and the
ground return path.
Accuracy of Phase-to-Phase Loop
The phase-to-phase loops are accurate if the
distance between the conductors is accurately
known.
3
Inaccurate calculation results can be caused by
• different conductor distances caused by
different tower types of overhead transmission
lines,
• different conductor distances at crossings of
rivers or roads of overhead transmission lines
and
• inaccurate values for the distance between
the single-conductors of cables if the distance
is not accurately known or the cables are laid
different.
Accuracy of Phase-to-Ground Loop
The phase-to-ground loops are normally inaccurate
since the presupposed assumptions are normally
not met. Typical reasons which can cause
inaccurate calculation results are:
• The ground currents can flow through buried
metallic conductors (like pipes, other cables,
rails), which leads to an equivalent distance
δ ≠ 931 m.
• Ground resistivity is normally not
homogeneous and depends on the position in
ground.
• In urban areas, the topographic of lines is
often not straight. But the calculation assumes
a constant distance between conductor and
ground current (parallel current flow) even if
the topographic course is not straight.
• Parallel cables or lines with ground wire are
normally not considered.
• Shield wires of cables are sometimes cross-
bonded. This is normally not considered for
calculation.
• Sections without ground conductor or a
missing ground conductor between two
towers are normally not considered in the
calculation.
4 MEASUREMENT OF LINE IMPEDANCES
It is necessary to measure the line parameters if
parameter calculations are not reliable or not
accurate enough. The measurement is based on
three phase-to-phase loops and three phase-to-
ground loops. These six measurements allow
determining the six parameters of an unbalanced
line.
4.1 Measurement of Line Parameters
With a single-phase source, seven measurements
can be performed (see Table 4.1). The seventh
measurement determines the zero sequence
impedance. This seventh measurement can be
used for plausibility check.
Table 4.1 shows the measured loops, the
measuring results and the determined parameters
for an unbalanced line.
Table 4.1: Measured loops, measuring results and • “High current method”:
determined parameter Use high currents close to or above the
nominal current to make the impact of other
Measured Measuring result Determined
currents negligible.
loop parameter
• “Frequency method”:
U m U L1
L1-E = = ZL11 ZL11 Use a different frequency for measurement
Im I L1 and measure frequency-selectively.
Historically, the high current method is used. One
Um UL2
L2-E = = ZL 22 ZL22 disadvantage of this method is that big equipment
Im IL 2 for high current feeding is required. Another
disadvantage is the fact that the accuracy of the
U m U L3
L3-E = = ZL33 ZL33 measurement is normally not known, since
Im I L3 currents in other live systems are not known.
U m ∆ U L1 − ∆ U L2 By applying a frequency-selective method, only the
L1-L2 = ZL12
part of the incoming signal that matches the
Im I L1 generated frequency is measured. With this
= Z L11 + ZL 22 − 2Z L12 method, it is possible to work with currents that are
a fraction of the nominal line current and
U m ∆ U L1 − ∆ U L3
L1-L3 = ZL13 consequently the weight of the equipment
Im I L1 becomes comparable with components weighing
less than 30 kg (see Figure 4.1). The accuracy of
= Z L11 + Z L33 − 2Z L13 the measurement is determined by the accuracy of
U m ∆ U L2 − ∆ U L3 measurement equipment and the quality of digital
L2-L3 = ZL23
filters. Therefore, accurate results are delivered -
Im I L2 even in an environment that experiences major
= ZL22 + ZL33 − 2Z L23 disturbances. Surge arrestors that are normally
part of the measurement system guarantee safety
U m ∆ U s0 1
“U0-3I0” = = Zs00 Zs00 of measuring staff and measuring equipment
Im 3Is0 3 during testing in case of an unexpected event on
the power system.

4.2 Assessment of Line Impedance

Measurement
The measurement of line impedances is based on
the same model as in line impedance calculation.
Both calculation and measurement can be based
on six loops. The difference between measurement
and calculation is:
• Calculation is based on assumptions (like
homogenous ground resistivity) and the
resulting current geometry in ground. If these
assumptions are not met, there is a relevant
calculation error.
• During the measurement, the impedance of
the six loops is directly determined. There are
no assumptions for the geometry of ground Figure 4.1 Equipment for line impedance
current and there is coherently no measuring measurement
error caused by assumptions.
4.3 Eliminating Disturbances and Equipment 5 OTHER MODELS OF LINES
Requirements
The calculation and measurement of line
The challenge when measuring line parameters impedances is above presented using the physical
was to overcome disturbances and interferences model of an unbalanced line. There are different
from other live systems. The accuracy of the line models for unbalanced and balanced lines. For
impedance measurement is determined by the fault location and distance protection, normally
quality of eliminating disturbances. balanced line models are used. These models are
There are two typical possibilities to reduce the presented in this section.
impact of noise and augment the accuracy of
measurement:

4
5.1 Physical Model of a Balanced Line useful to assign the phase elements different
values, like
The entries of the impedance matrix of a balanced
line meet the conditions Z p1 ≠ Z p2 ≠ Z p3 (10)
ZL12 = ZL13 = ZL23 and ZL11 = ZL22 = ZL33 (8) in order to model unbalanced lines.
The model of a balanced line is determined by two
parameters
• the diagonal element ZL11 and
• the non-diagonal element ZL12.
5.2 Symmetrical Components of a Balanced
Line
The impedance matrix of the balanced single-
circuit line in symmetrical components is a
diagonal matrix.

 Zs11 0 0  Figure 5.2: Equivalent circuit diagram of the line

  model with earth return impedance
Zs =  0 Zs11 0  (9)
 0 0 Zs00 
5.4 Conversion between Balanced Line
 Models
Figure 5.1 shows the model of a balanced line in The three balanced models presented in sections
symmetrical components. 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 are completely equivalent
according to the boundary condition
The model of a balanced line in symmetrical
components is determined by two parameters: −IE = IL1 + IL2 + IL3 (11)
• the positive sequence impedance Zs11
Each model is described by two parameters.
(equal to the negative sequence impedance
These parameters can be converted with
Zs22) and
• the zero sequence impedance Zs00. Z s11 = Z L11 − Z L12 = Z p (12)

and
Z s00 = Z L11 + 2Z L12 = Z p + 3Z E (13)

5.5 Conversion from Unbalanced to Balanced

Model
Overhead lines and cables are normally
unbalanced but short-circuit calculation and
distance protection are using the balanced models.
Therefore, a conversion from unbalanced to
balanced models is needed.
It can be shown [3] that

Zs11 = Zp = ZLii − ZLik (14)

Figure 5.1: Equivalent circuit diagram of a
balanced line in symmetrical components and
5.3 Balanced Line Model with Earth Return Zs00 = Zp + 3ZE = ZLii + 2ZLik (15)
Impedance
Figure 5.2 shows the model with earth return where
impedance of a balanced line. The balanced line
model with earth return impedance is determined • Z Lii is the arithmetic mean value of the
by two parameters: diagonal elements of the unbalanced physical
model and
• the element of phases Zp and
• the element of earth ZE. • Z Lik is the arithmetic mean value of the non-
It should be mentioned that this model should only diagonal elements of the unbalanced physical
be applied for balanced line modelling. It is not model.

5
Equation (14) and (15) are important from a
measurement point of view. They point out that the
parameters of a balanced line model can be
determined by calculation of the arithmetic mean
value using the measurement values of an
unbalanced line.
6 CASE STUDY OF A CABLE
Presented is a measurement which is applied in
2010 on a 100-kV cable. This measurement shows
some special effects often detected when line
impedance measurement is applied.
6.1 Measuring Results and Negative
Reactance XE
Table 6.1 shows the results of the measured loops.
Based on these measuring results, the parameters
of the different models are calculated.
1 ZL1−L2 + ZL2−L3 + ZL3− L1
Zs11 = ZP =
2 3
= ( 0,172 + j0,886 ) Ω
(16)
L3-E (ZL3-E) 0,333 0,749
U0 und 3I0 (1/3 Z0m) 0,225 0,153
6.2 Comparison between Calculated and
Measured Values
Figure 6.1 shows the ratio XE/XL and RE/RL of
measured and calculated impedances. These
ratios are, for example, used for the setting of
distance protection.
An overreach of distance protection is caused if the
setting is based on calculated impedances. The
overreach can be calculated for a phase-to-ground
fault value if IE = -IL1 is assumed for the currents
measured by the distance protection (see Figure
6.2). A cable with the same impedance per unit
length is assumed for this diagram. A phase-to-
ground fault at a distance of 144% of the cable
length causes measured impedance which is
assigned to a fault location at 80% of the cable
length. This can cause unwanted operation of
distance protection.

Zs00 = Zp + 3ZE = ( 0, 663 + j0, 462 ) Ω

(17)

ZL1−E + ZL2− E + ZL3− E

ZE = − Zs11
3
= ( 0,164 − j0,141) Ω
(18)
Equation (18) shows that the earth reactance has
a negative value. This value is negative due to the Figure 6.1: Measured and calculated impedances
line model selected and does not mean the earth
reactance is physically negative. The
measurement and the calculation are correct, even
if a negative model reactance is surprising. The
impact can be explained joining equation (16) and
(18). It is

Z L1− E + Z L2− E + Z L3− E

ZE =
3
(19)
1 Z L1− L2 + Z L2− L3 + Z L3− L1
−
2 3
If the sum of the reactances of the phase-to-phase
loops is greater than the sum of the reactances of
the phase-to-ground loops multiplied with two, the Figure 6.2: Virtual impedance measurement and
earth reactance is negative. This effect can occur virtual overreach with setting based on calculated
at cables if the distance between phase line impedances
conductors is much greater than the distance
6.3 Measurement Results with Different
between conductors and ground return path.
Ground Return Paths
Table 6.1: Measured impedances
The impact of ground return path can also be
Measured loop R in Ohm X in Ohm shown with this measurement. The shield wires of
L1-L2 (ZL1-L2) 0,347 1,755 the cables are grounded at both ends. Additionally,
L2-L3 (ZL2-L3) 0,340 1,769 there is a parallel conductor which is installed with
L3-L1 (ZL3-L1) 0,344 1,789 the cables. Disconnecting shield wire and
L1-E (ZL1-E) 0,347 0,752 additional conductor, we have been able to
execute four different measurements. Table 6.2
L2-E (ZL2-E) 0,327 0,732
6
shows the results. The phase impedance (positive
sequence impedance) Zp = Rp + j Xp is equal for all
measurements.
If the additional conductor is disconnected, the
ground resistance is increased but the ground
reactance is decreased. This means the virtual
distance between phase conductor and ground
return path is also decreased.
If the shield wire is disconnected, the ground
resistance and the ground reactance are
increased. This means the virtual distance
between phase conductor and ground return path
is also increased.
The measured impedance with both shield wire
and additional conductor disconnected differs
strongly. This shows the effect of buried
conductors for cables without shield wire and for
overhead lines without ground wire. It should be
mentioned that parallel lines or cables (power or
signal cable) can also cause this effect.
Figure 7.1: Model of a balanced double-circuit line
Table 6.2: Measured impedances with different in symmetrical components
ground wires
7.2 Impact of Zero Sequence Coupling
Ground wire connection RE/RP XE/XP Impedance Zs00c
shield wire and additional 0,974 -0,160
Due to the zero sequence coupling impedance
conductor grounded
Zs00c there is an induced zero sequence voltage in
only shield wire grounded, 1,054 -0,173 line L1 (Us0cL1 = Is0L2*Zs00c), if there is a zero
additional conductor disconnected sequence current in line L2. Therefore, the zero
shield wire disconnected, 1,709 0,718 sequence coupling impedance Zs00c is required for
additional conductor grounded distance protection, fault location and short-circuit
shield wire and additional 3,467 1,578 calculation.
conductor disconnected
The impact of the zero sequence coupling
impedance Zs00c can be shown with the different
operating states. Table 7.1 shows the impact for
7 MEASUREMENT OF DOUBLE-CIRCUIT different operating states where a phase-to-ground
LINES fault is at the remote end of line L1.

For double-circuit lines, the coupling between the Table 7.1: Current Is0L2 and induced voltage Us0cL1
two circuits has to be considered. This section for different operating states where a phase-to-
presents the model, the measurement and the ground fault is at the remote end of line L1
application for double-circuit lines. Simplified Diagram and Current Is0L2 and Induced
7.1 Model of a Double-Circuit Line Operating Conditions Voltage Us0cL1

Figure 7.1 shows the model of a balanced double- Is0L2 = 0

circuit line in symmetrical components. This model
Us0cL1 = 0
is often used for distance protection and fault
locating. The model can be described by five line L2 isolated and not
parameters: grounded
• the positive sequence impedance of line L1
Zs00c
Zs11L1, I s0L2 = − Is0L1
• the positive sequence impedance of line L2 Zs00L2
Zs11L2, 2
• the zero sequence impedance of line L1 line L2 grounded at both Zs00c
ends
U s0cL1 = − Is0L1
Zs00L1, Zs00L2
• the zero sequence impedance of line L1 Zs00L2
and
• the zero sequence coupling impedance
between line L1 and line L2 Zs00c.

7
Simplified Diagram and
Operating Conditions
line L2 in operation, feeding
from local end
line L2 in operation,
circuit breaker at the remote
end of line L1 open,
feeding from local end
Current Is0L2 and Induced 8 MEASUREMENT OF ZERO SEQUENCE
Voltage Us0cL1 IMPEDANCES
Is0L2 = Is0L1 The different operating states of the second
system are used to determine the zero sequence
Us0cL1 = Zs00c Is0L1 impedances.
8.1 Measurement of the Zero Sequence
Impedance Zs00
Is0L2 = 0 The measurement is done when line 2 is isolated
and not grounded. Figure 8.1 shows the equivalent
Us0cL1 = 0 circuit diagram of the zero sequence system.
There is no impact of the coupling impedance Zs00
because the zero sequence current Is0L2 in system
2 is zero.

Is0L2 = − Is0L1
Us0cL1 = − Zs00c Is0L1
line L2 in operation,
circuit breaker at the remote
end of line L1 open,
feeding from remote end
Figure 8.1: Equivalent circuit diagram of zero
sequence system when system 2 is isolated
7.3 Range of Values for Zs00c
8.2 Measurement of the Zero Sequence
The quantity of the zero sequence coupling
Coupling Impedance Zs00c
impedance Zs00c is determined by the geometrical
configuration of the conductors of a double-circuit The zero sequence coupling impedance Zs00c is
line. calculated based on the measurement when
system 2 is grounded and the already measured
Overhead transmission lines (OHT) have normally
zero sequence impedance Zs00. Figure 8.2 shows
a substantial zero sequence coupling impedance,
the equivalent circuit diagram.
which cannot be neglected. Table 7.2 shows an
example. The zero sequence voltage induced by the
coupling impedance Zs00c in line 2 is
Some typical geometrical configurations for
medium-voltage cables lead to a negligible zero Us0L2c = Zs00c Is0L1 (20)
sequence coupling impedance.
For high-voltage cables, the geometrical The zero sequence current in line 2 can be
arrangement of the conductors has to be calculated because the second system is
considered, the zero sequence coupling grounded at both ends (short-circuited). It is
impedance can be substantial. 0 = U s0cL2 + Zs00L2 Is0L2
For mixed lines (OHT and cable), there is always a (21)
⇒ U s0cL2 = − Zs00L2 Is0L2
zero sequence coupling impedance caused by the
OHT part. Using equation (20) and (21) leads to
Table 7.2: Quantities of the impedances per
kilometer of a 380-kV double-circuit line
Zs00c Is0L1 = − Zs00L2 Is0L2
Zs00c (22)
Positive Zero sequence Zero sequence ⇒ Is0L2 = − Is0L1
sequence impedance coupling Zs00L2
impedance impedance
The zero sequence voltage induced in line 1 can
R Rs11‘ = 25.3 m Rs00‘ = 134 m Rs00c‘ = 109 m now be calculated, it is
Ω/km Ω/km Ω/km
Zs00c
X Xs11‘ = 263 m Xs00‘ = 929 m Xs00c‘ = 542 m U s0cL1 = Zs00c Is0L2 = − Zs00c Is0L1 (23)
Ω/km Ω/km Ω/km Zs00L2
The coupling impedance is calculated based on
the measured loop voltage Us0L1, the measured

8
current Is0L1 and the before determined zero Us0cL1 ≠ 0
sequence impedance Zs00L1. Is0L1 Zs00L1
A
Zs00c
U s0L1 = Zs00L1 Is0L1 + U s0cL1 Us0L1 V Zs00L2
Zs00c
= Zs00L1 Is0L1 − Zs00c Is0L1 (24)
Zs0A Is0L2 ≠ 0 Us0cL2 ≠ 0 Zs0B
Zs00L2
U s0L1
⇒ Zs00c = Zs00L1 Zs00L2 − Zs00L2
Is0L1 Figure 8.3: Equivalent circuit diagram of zero
sequence system when system 2 is in operation
8.4 Different States for Line 2 in Operation
There are two states with line 2 in operation which
are normally considered. These states are
• line 2 in operation during measurement and
• line 2 in operation during a phase-to-ground
fault at the line.
These states are different. Therefore, the zero
Figure 8.2: Equivalent circuit diagram of zero sequence impedance measured when line 2 is in
sequence system when system 2 is grounded at operation should normally not be used for setting
both ends the distance protection equipment (setting of k-
8.3 Measurement with System 2 in Operation factor). The different states are illustrated below.

If system 2 is in operation, it is loaded at both ends
with unknown load impedances, which are
determined by the power system. Figure 8.3 shows
the equivalent circuit diagram of the zero sequence
system. If line 2 is in operation, the zero sequence
coupling impedance Zs00c normally cannot be
calculated because the impedances of the power
system are unknown.
The measured zero sequence impedance
U s0L1
Zs0m = can be used for plausibility check.
Is0L1
The absolute value of the measured zero
sequence impedance Zs0m when line 2 is in
operation is
• smaller than the absolute value of the
measured zero sequence impedance when
line 2 is isolated.
If line 2 is isolated, the sum of Zs0A and Zs0B is
infinite.
• greater than the absolute value of the
measured zero sequence impedance when
line 2 is grounded.
If line 2 is grounded, the sum of Zs0A and Zs0B
is zero (short-circuited).
9
During measurement, the two lines are neither
connected at the local end nor connected at the
remote end. The resulting zero sequence current in
line 2 is
Zs00c
I s0L2 = − Is0L1 (25)
Zs00L2 + Zs0A + Zs0B
If both lines are in operation, they are normally
connected to the busbar at both ends. If a phase-
to-ground fault occurs at the remote end of line 2,
the resulting zero sequence current is
Is0L2 = + Is0L1 (26)
Equations (25) and (26) show the difference
between operation and measurement. The zero
sequence currents in line 2 are different and have
opposite directions.
8.5 Setting for Distance Protection
The settings for distance protection depend on the
topology and on the requirements of the
considered power system. There is no overall
optimal setting. The following operation condition
or power system requirements have to be
considered:
• Is teleprotection used and which method of
teleprotection is used?
• Is the double-circuit line a “real” (both circuits
are connecting the same substations/busbars)
double line?
• Is the double-circuit line fed from both ends?
• Are additional methods for elimination of zero
impedance coupling used (e.g. correction with
parallel line zero sequence current, change of
setting group)?
 • Could unwanted operations be accepted?
Could delayed tripping be accepted?
There are different options allowing dealing with
zero sequence impedance coupling, and there is
no overall method to consider coupling of double-
circuit lines. But correct values of line impedances
are required for each reliable an optimal setting of
distance protection.
9 CASE STUDY OF A DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINE
Table 9.1 show the measuring result of the zero
sequence impedance measurement for a double-
U s0L1
circuit line. The stated value is Zs0m = . and reliable values.
3Is0L1
The measured values for line L2 connected to the
power system are smaller than the values for line
L2 isolated and greater than the values for line L2
grounded. This is already described in section 8.3.
The zero sequence impedance and the zero
sequence coupling impedance are calculated
based on the description in section 8.1 and 8.2.
The zero sequence impedance of line L1 is
Zs00L1 = 3 ⋅ (1.288 + j7.258) Ω
= ( 3.864 + j21.759 ) Ω
The coupling impedance is calculated
equation (24)
values which are required for distance protection,
fault locators and short-circuit calculation. Future
malfunctions of the protection system caused by
inaccurate line impedance values can be avoided
with measurements.
The zero sequence coupling impedance of double-
circuit line can also be measured. This
measurement is based on operating states “line L2
isolated” and “line L2 grounded”. This means the
second circuit has to be taken out of operation
during the measurement of zero sequence
coupling impedance. If the coupling impedance is
measured, the setting of the protection system,
which is often crucial, can be based on accurate
11 REFERENCES
[1] H. Happoldt, D. Oeding: Elektrische Kraftwerke
und Netze, Springer Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg
1978
[2] D. Nelles, CH. Tuttas: Elektrische
Energietechnik, Teubner, Stuttgart, 1998
[3] Network Protection & Automation Guide,
Alstom, 2002
(27)
with

Zs00c = ( 2.336 + j9.790 ) Ω (28)

Table 9.1: Measuring result for zero sequence

impedance measurement UsoL1/(3*Is0L1)
Operating Real part in Imaginary
Condition Ohm part in Ohm
line L2 isolated and 1.288 7.253
not grounded
line L2 grounded at 0.847 5.790
both ends
line L2 in operation 1.148 6.604
(connected to
power system)

10 CONCLUSION

Calculation of line impedances is based on

assumptions and is often inaccurate and not
reliable. Measurement of line impedance allows
determining accurately line impedances without
any assumption on geometry.
Large differences between measured and
calculated line impedances can often be detected
when measurement of line impedances is applied.
These measurements deliver accurate and reliable
10