1.

Introduction
Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks are autonomous and decentralized wireless systems.
MANETs consist of mobile nodes that are free in moving in and out in the network. Nodes
are the systems or devices i.e. mobile phone, laptop, personal digital assistance, MP3 player
and personal computer that are participating in the network and are mobile. These nodes can
act as host/router or both at the same time. They can form arbitrary topologies depending on
their connectivity with each other in the network. These nodes have the ability to configure
themselves and because of their self configuration ability, they can be deployed urgently
without the need of any infrastructure. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has MANET
working group (WG) that is devoted for developing IP routing protocols. Routing protocols is
one of the challenging and interesting research areas. Many routing protocols have been
developed for MANETS, i.e. AODV, OLSR, DSR etc.
Security in Mobile Ad-Hoc Network is the most important concern for the basic
functionality of network. The availability of network services, confidentiality and integrity of
the data can be achieved by assuring that security issues have been met. MANETs often
suffer from security attacks because of its features like open medium, changing its topology
dynamically, lack of central monitoring and management, cooperative algorithms and no
clear defense mechanism. These factors have changed the battle field situation for the
MANETs against the security threats.
The MANETs work without a centralized administration where the nodes
communicate with each other on the basis of mutual trust. This characteristic makes
MANETs more vulnerable to be exploited by an attacker inside the network. Wireless links
also makes the MANETs more susceptible to attacks, which make it easier for the attacker to
go inside the network and get access to the ongoing communication. Mobile nodes present
within the range of wireless link can overhear and even participate in the network.
MANETs must have a secure way for transmission and communication and this is a
quite challenging and vital issue as there is increasing threats of attack on the Mobile
Networks. Security is the cry of the day. In order to provide secure communication and
transmission, the engineers must understand different types of attacks and their effects on the
MANETs. Wormhole attack, Black hole attack, Sybil attack, flooding attack, routing table
overflow attack, Denial of Service (DoS), selfish node misbehaving, impersonation attack are
kind of attacks that a MANET can suffer from. A MANET is more open to these kinds of
attacks because communication is based on mutual trust between the nodes, there is no
central point for network management, no authorization facility, vigorously changing
topology and limited resources.

With the proliferation of cheaper, small, and more powerful mobile devices,
mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) have become one of the fastest growing areas of
research. A “Mobile ad hoc network” is a system of wireless mobile nodes with routing
capabilities –the union of which form an arbitrary graph. Any group of them are capable
of forming an autonomous network that require no infrastructure and is capable of
organizing itself into arbitrary changeable topologies. Such a network may operate in a
stand-alone fashion, or may be connected to the larger Internet. The definition, which is
given by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).Minimal configuration and quick
deployment make ad hoc networks suitable for emergency situations like natural or human-
induced disasters, military conflicts, emergency medical situations etc.

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 Fig.1 Infrastructure based Network

Advantages of MANETs:-

 They provide access to information and services regardless of geographic position.

 These networks can be set up at any place and time.
 These networks work without any pre-existing infrastructure.

Fig.2 Infrastructure less Network

Characteristics:
 Nodes can perform the roles of both hosts and routers.
 No centralized controller and infrastructure.
 Intrinsic mutual trust.
 Dynamic network topology.
 Frequent routing updates.

Request for Comments (RFC) 2501 document (IETF, 1999) which is published by MANET
working group within the IETF describes the main characteristics of MANET which differs

2
from the characteristics of traditional wireless local area networks such as WLANs due to the
dynamic and the infrastructure less natures of MANETs.
According to the IETF RFC 2501, MANET has characteristics can be divided into the
following:
 A collection of autonomous terminals means that within a MANET, each mobile node
performs its tasks as a router and a host.
 It contains a dynamic topology which means there are a group of nodes into it that are
moving and resulting to a random change rapidly at unpredictable times through the
network topology.
 A distributed operation is contained into it which means that the network’s
management and control is spread (distributed) in the nodes because of the
infrastructure types’ absence of which the central control of the network operations is
supported. In a MANET, nodes must perform with each other. each node behaves as a
router and a host simultaneously in order to have the network functions efficiently
implemented, for example, routing and security.
 It can be deployed as fast as it could be.
 Pre-existing infrastructure is independent from it.
 Bandwidth-constrained, variable capacity links compared with the wired network
environment, the capacity of the wireless link itself is relatively small, but also
susceptible to external noise, interference, and signal attenuation effects.
 Self-adapts to the propagation patterns and connectivity.
 Adapts to mobility patterns and traffic.
 A limited physical security is contained into it, for example, in the absence of any
centralized encryption or authentication. In order to reduce security threats, existing
techniques of link security are at most applied into the WLANs and the wired
networks.
 It has an energy constrained operation a laptop or handheld computers are often used
batteries to provide power, how to save electricity in the context of depletion of
system design is also necessary to consider the point.

Disadvantages:
Some of the disadvantages of MANETs are:
 Limited resources.
 Limited physical security.
 Intrinsic mutual trust vulnerable to attacks.
 Lack of authorization facilities.
 Volatile network topology makes it hard to detect malicious nodes.
 Security protocols for wired networks cannot work for ad hoc networks.

2. Basics of Wireless Networks:

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2.1 Need of Wireless Networks
Wireless networks are gaining popularity to its peak today, as the user wants wireless
connectivity irrespective of their geographic position. Wireless Networks enable users to
communicate and transfer data with each other without any wired medium between them.
One of the reasons of the popularity of these networks is widely penetration of wireless
devices. Wireless applications and devices mainly emphasize on Wireless Local Area
Networks (WLANs). This has mainly two modes of operations, i.e. in the presence of Control
Module (CM) also known as Base Stations and Ad-Hoc connectivity where there is no
Control Module. Ad-Hoc networks do not depend on fixed infrastructure in order to carry out
their operations. The operation mode of such network is stand alone, or may be attached with
one or multiple points to provide internet and connectivity to cellular networks.
These networks exhibits the same conventional problems of wireless communications
i.e. bandwidth limitations, battery power, enhancement of transmission quality and coverage
problems.
A network in which, computer devices communicates with each other without any
wire. The communication medium between the computer devices is wireless. When a
computer device wants to communicate with another device, the destination device must lays
within the radio range of each other. Users in wireless networks transmit and receive data
using electromagnetic waves. Recently wireless networks are getting more and more popular
because of its mobility, simplicity and very affordable and cost saving installation.

2.2 What is Network?

Before going into the details of wireless network, it is important to understand what a
network is and different kind of networks available today.
Any collection of devices/ computers connected with each other by means of
communication channels that help the users to share resources and communicate with other
users. There are two main types of network i.e. wired network and wireless network.

2.3 Why Wireless Networks?

Wireless networks are getting popular due to their ease of use. Consumer/user is no
more dependent on wires where he/she is, easy to move and enjoy being connected to the
network.
One of the great features of wireless network that makes it fascinating and
distinguishable amongst the traditional wired networks is mobility. This feature gives user the
ability to move freely, while being connected to the network. Wireless networks
comparatively easy to install then wired network. There is nothing to worry about pulling the
cables/wires in wall and ceilings. Wireless networks can be configured according to the need
of the users. These can range from small number of users to large full infrastructure networks
where the number of users is in thousands.
2.4 Types:
Wireless networks are very useful for areas where the wire cannot be installed like hilly
areas.
On the basis of coverage area the wireless network can be divided into.
a) Personal Area network
b) Local Area Network
c) Wide Area Network

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a) Personal Area Network
Personal area network is used for communication between computer devices close to one
person. Some of the personal area networks are zigbee, Bluetooth, sensor networks.
Bluetooth is low cost wireless connection that can link up devices. These devices normally
work within 10 meters, with access speed up to 721 Kbps. This technology is widely used in
a range of devices like computer and their accessories i.e. mouse and keyboard, PDAs,
printers and mobile phones etc. It is important to understand that Bluetooth as Wireless
Personal Area Network (WPAN) is not 802.11 wireless as it do not perform the same job,
rather used as wireless replacement for cable in order to connect devices. Bluetooth works at
2.4 GHz band and this may cause interference with Wireless LAN equipments (802.11b,
802.11g).

b) Local Area Network

Wireless local area network (WLAN) is standardized by Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineer (IEEE). In local area network the users communicate with each other in
local coverage area i.e. building or a campus. WLANs are the substitute of the conventional
wired LANs. WLAN is wireless medium that is shared by the devices within the WLAN.
WLANs have gained a great amount of popularity. Keeping in mind their mobility feature,
they are implemented in mobile devices like laptop, PDAs, Mobile Cell phones etc. In
WLAN, wireless Ethernet Protocol, IEEE 802.11 is used. WLAN is mainly used for the
connection with internet. The data rate of WLAN is low that is between 11 and 54 Megabits
per second (Mbps) as compared to the wired LAN which operates at 100 to 1000 Mbps. This
means that any activity that required high bandwidth, are better done on wired network rather
than on wireless.

c) Wide Area Network

Wireless wide area network (WWAN) cover geographically larger area than local area
network. The wide area networks almost consist of one or two local area networks. Examples
of WWAN are Satellite Systems, Paging Networks, 2G and 3G Mobile Cellular.

Fig.3 Wireless Network

3 Basics of MANET
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3.1 History of MANET

A mobile ad-hoc network is a collection of mobile nodes forming an ad-hoc network without
the assistance of any centralized structures. These networks introduced a new art of network
establishment and can be well suited for an environment where either the infrastructure is lost
or where deploy an infrastructure is not very cost effective.

There are quite a number of uses for mobile ad-hoc networks. For example, the military can
track an enemy tank as it moves through the geographic area covered by the network. Your
local community can use an ad-hoc network to detect your car moving though an intersection,
checking the speed and direction of the car. In an environmental network, you can find out
the temperature, atmospheric pressure, amount of sunlight, and the relative humidity at a
number of locations.

The whole life-cycle of ad-hoc networks could be categorized into the first, second, and the
third generation ad-hoc networks systems. Present ad-hoc networks systems are considered
the third generation.

The first generation goes back to 1972. At the time, they were called PRNET (Packet Radio
Networks). In conjunction with ALOHA (Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres) and
CSMA (Carrier Sense Medium Access), approaches for medium access control and a kind of
distance-vector routing PRNET were used on a trial basis to provide different networking
capabilities in a combat environment.

The second generation of ad-hoc networks emerged in 1980s, when the ad-hoc network
systems were further enhanced and implemented as a part of the SURAN (Survivable
Adaptive Radio Networks) program. This provided a packet-switched network to the mobile
battlefield in an environment without infrastructure. This program proved to be beneficial in
improving the radios' performance by making them smaller, cheaper, and resilient to
electronic attacks.

In the 1990s, the concept of commercial ad-hoc networks arrived with notebook computers
and other viable communications equipment. At the same time, the idea of a collection of
mobile nodes was proposed at several research conferences.

The IEEE 802.11 subcommittee had adopted the term "ad-hoc networks" and the research
community had started to look into the possibility of deploying ad-hoc networks in other
areas of application.

Meanwhile, work was going on to advance the previously built ad-hoc networks. GloMo
(Global Mobile Information Systems) and the NTDR (Near-term Digital Radio) are some of
the results of these efforts. GloMo was designed to provide an office environment with
Ethernet-type multimedia connectivity anywhere and anytime in handheld devices.

3.2 What is Mobile Ad-Hoc Network?

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Mobile Ad-Hoc network is an autonomous system, where nodes/stations are connected with
each other through wireless links. There is no restriction on the nodes to join or leave the
network, therefore the nodes join or leave freely. Mobile Ad-Hoc network topology is
dynamic that can change rapidly because the nodes move freely and can organize themselves
randomly. This property of the nodes makes the mobile Ad-Hoc networks unpredictable from
the point of view of scalability and topology.

Fig: 4 Mobile Ad-hoc Network

3.2.1 Static Ad-Hoc Networks

In static Ad-Hoc networks the geographic location of the nodes or the stations are fixed.
There is no mobility in the nodes of the networks, that’s why they are known as static Ad-
Hoc networks.

3.3 Need of Ad-Hoc Networks

Ad-Hoc networks have no infrastructure where the nodes are free to join and left the network.
The nodes are connected with each other through a wireless link. A node can serve as a router
to forward the data to the neighbors’ nodes. Therefore this kind of network is also known as
infrastructure less networks. These networks have no centralized administration. Ad-Hoc
networks have the capabilities to handle any malfunctioning in the nodes or any changes that
its experience due to topology changes. Whenever a node in the network is down or leaves
the network that causes the link between other nodes is broken. The affected nodes in the
network simply request for new routes and new links are established Ad-Hoc network can be
categorized in to static Ad-Hoc network (SANET) and Mobile Ad-Hoc network (MANET).

3.4 Types of MANET

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Types of Mobile Ad-Hoc Network:
1. Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANET’s)
2. Intelligent Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks ( InVANET’s)
3. Internet Based Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (iMANET’s)

3.4.1 Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network:

VANET is a type of Mobile Ad-Hoc network where vehicles are equipped with wireless and
form a network without help of any infrastructure. The equipment is placed inside vehicles as
well as on the road for providing access to other vehicles in order to form a network and
communicate.

3.4.2 Intelligent Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (InVANET’s)

Vehicles that form Mobile Ad-Hoc Network for communication using WiMax IEEE 802.16
and WiFi 802.11. The main aim of designing InVANET’s is to avoid vehicle collision so as
to keep passengers as safe as possible. This also help drivers to keep secure distance between
the vehicles as well as assist them at how much speed other vehicles are approaching.
InVANET’s applications are also employed for military purposes to communicate with each
other.

3.4.3 Internet Based Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (iMANET’s)

These are used for linking up the mobile nodes and fixed internet gateways. In these networks
the normal routing algorithms does not apply.

4 Applications of MANET

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4.1 Military

Ad hoc networking would allow the military to take advantage of commonplace network
technology to maintain an information network between the soldiers, vehicles, and military
information head quarters.

Consider a scenario as shown in fig, is deployed over a battlefield. The ad hoc network
formed by the air vehicle in the sky can provide a backbone for land based platforms to
communicate when they are out of direct range, or when obstacles prevent direct
communication. The ad hoc network therefore extends down to the land based forces and
allows communication across the battlefield. Voice and video, as well as sensing and data
applications can be supported.

Fig :-5 Use of MANET in Military Applications

Disaster Relief

In cases of disasters, the existing infrastructure is often damaged or destroyed.. Natural

disasters e.g. lead to the loss of electricity and Internet connectivity, as described in [4].
Emergency rescue operations must take place where non-existing or damaged
communications infrastructure and rapid deployment of a communication network is needed.
An ad hoc network can be used in emergency/rescue operations for disaster relief efforts, e.g.
in fire, flood, or earthquake,, to overcome the problems incurred by missing infrastructure,
helping to better cope with the consequences of such calamities. Mobile units carry
networking equipment to support routing operations. Information is relayed from one rescue
team member to another over a small handheld. Other commercial scenarios include e.g.
ship-to-ship ad hoc mobile communication, law enforcement etc.

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 Fig: 6 Disaster Reliefs

Home Networking

Fig: 7 Home Networking

Home networking is the collection of electronic products and systems, enabling remote
access and control of those products and systems, and any available contents such as music,
video or data. In home networks, a user wants to accomplish data communication in ways
that are affordable, reliable, easy to learn, and easy to use.

Vehicular Ad hoc network (VANET)

Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is a subset of mobile ad hoc network, which supports
data communications among nearby vehicles and between vehicles and nearby fixed
infrastructure, and generally represented as roadside entities. Depending on the range of data
communications, nodes in VANET communicate among themselves in type of short-range
(vehicle-to-vehicle) or medium-range (vehicle-to-roadside) communications

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 Fig: 8 VANET

In addition, the major application view of VANETs includes real-time and safety
applications. Non-safety applications include real-time traffic congestion and routing
information, high-speed tolling, mobile infotainment, traffic condition monitoring, and many
others. Vehicular safety applications include emergency, collision, car accident, and other
safety warnings.

Sensor network

Fig: 9 Sensor Network

Sensor networks are composed of a large number of small nodes with sensing, computation,
and wireless communication capabilities. In sensor networks, sensor nodes are usually
scattered and the position of sensor nodes needs not be predetermined. It means that sensor
network protocols and algorithms must provide self-organizing capabilities. Another feature
of sensor networks is the coordination of sensor nodes to produce high-quality information
about the sensing environment. The features of sensor networks provide a wide range of
applications such as health, military, and home. The realization of these and other sensor
network applications require wireless ad hoc networking techniques.

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Network Gaming
Ad hoc wireless also use for network gaming. Two different LANs can be connected with
each other for gaming whenever required. It’s a temporary connection.

Conferencing
Ad hoc network is widely used to create a network in place like Conferences, where for a
short time of period the network is formed. One main pc is wired to which the internet facility
is given and the rest of the computers or laptops are connectionless. One main computer
forms the Ad hoc network and tries to connect with all the rest of the computer to make
communication and data transfer is possible.

Campus use
Ad hoc Network is also used for Campus use. It’s a small area in which network is created or
formed whenever it is required. Professor from one building can communicate with the
professor of the other building. No need to set up any wired connection. Etc.

4.2 Limitations of Ad hoc Networks

Each node must have full performance. Throughput is affected by system loading. Reliability
requires a sufficient number of available nodes. Sparse networks can have problems. Large
networks can have excessive latency (time delay), which affects some applications.

The other considerable challenges are pointed out as follows:

 Multihop operation requires a routing mechanism for mobile nodes

 Internet access mechanisms
 Self-configuring networks requires an address allocation mechanism
 Mechanism to detect and act on, merging of existing networks
 Dynamic topology maintenance
 Scaling to large networks
 Limited energy and computing resources
 Security mechanisms

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5 Challenges in MANET:-
MANETs are much more vulnerable to attack than wired network. This is because of
following reasons:

5.1 Absence of Infrastructure

Ad hoc networks operate independently of any infrastructure, which makes inapplicable

any classical solutions based on certification authorities and on line servers.

5.2 Limited physical security

Mobile wireless networks are generally more prone to physical security threats than a
fixed- cable nets. The increased possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, and denial-of-
service attacks should be carefully considered. Existing link security techniques are
often applied within wireless networks to reduce security threat.

5.3 Restricted power Supply

Due to mobility of nodes in the ad hoc network, nodes will rely on battery as their power
supply method; the problem that may be caused by restricted power supply is denial-of-
service attacks and selfish manner.

5.4 Dynamically changing network topology

Nodes are free to move arbitrarily. The network topology may change randomly and have
no restriction on their distance from other nodes.

As a result of this random movement, the whole topology is changing in an unpredictable

manner, which in turn gives rise to both directional as well as unidirectional links
between the nodes.

Figure 10: changing network topology

5.5 Lack of Centralized monitoring

Absence of any centralized monitoring makes the detection of attacks a very difficult
problem because it is not easy to monitor the traffic in a highly and large
scale ad hoc network. It is rather common in the ad hoc network that benign failures such as
transmission impairments and packet dropping.

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5.6 Scalability
In some applications, a MANET can grow to thousands of nodes, such as, battlefield
deployments, urban vehicle grids and large environmental sensor fabrics. It is extremely hard
to have the scalability handled in a MANET due to the random and unlimited mobility.

5.7 Mobility
It is at most the first designer’s enemy of MANET.

5.8 Application/Market penetration

Multi-hop technology is not commercial at present. More clearly, the short coverage area’s
limitation of the wireless products can be justified in its belonging to the standard of IEEE
802.11.

5.9 Design/Implementation
Manageable, secure, reliable and survivable implementation and design must act for MANET
since a bandwidth-constrained operation and a limited physical security are contained in
MANETs.

5.10 Limited wireless transmission range

Depends on the wireless technology’s capabilities.

5.11 Operational/Business-related
How to have the network managed and how to bill for services.

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5.2 Protocol Stack used in Mobile Ad hoc network
In this section the protocol stack for mobile ad hoc networks is described. This gives a
comprehensive picture of, and helps to better understand, mobile ad hoc networks. Figure
shows the protocol stack which consists of five layers: physical layer, data link layer, network
layer, transport layer and application layer.

Fig: 11 The OSI model, TCP/IP suite and MANET protocol stack

It has similarities to the TCP/IP protocol suite. As it can be seen the OSI layers for session,
presentation and application are merged into one section, the application layer. On the left of
Fig, the OSI model is shown. It is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows for communication across all types of computer systems. In the middle of the figure,
the TCP/IP suite is illustrated. Because it was designed before the OSI model, the layers in
the TCP/IP suite do not correspond exactly to the OSI layers. The lower four layers are the
same but the fifth layer in the TCP/IP suite (the application layer) is equivalent to the
combined session, presentation and application layers of the OSI model.

On the right, the MANET protocol stack - which is similar to the TCP/IP suite – is
shown. The main difference between these two protocols stacks lies in the network layer.
Mobile nodes (which are both hosts and routers) use an ad hoc routing protocol to route
packets. In the physical and data link layer, mobile nodes run protocols that have been
designed for wireless channels. In the simulation tool used in this project, the standard IEEE
802.11 is used in these layers. The network layer is divided into two parts: Network and Ad
hoc Routing. In the transport layer, the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used in the study.

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6 Routing Protocols:
Routing protocols in MANETs are classified into three different categories according to their
functionality:
1. Reactive (On-Demand) protocols
2. Proactive (table Driven) protocols
3. Hybrid protocols (both)

Fig: 12 MANET Routing Protocols

6.1 Reactive Protocols (On demand):

Reactive protocols also known as on demand driven reactive protocols. The fact they are
known as reactive protocols is, they do not initiate route discovery by themselves, until they
are requested, when a source node request to find a route. These protocols setup routes when
demanded [3, 4]. When a node wants to communicate with another node in the network, and
the source node does not have a route to the node it wants to communicate with, reactive
routing protocols will establish a route for the source to destination node. Normally reactive
protocols.

 Don’t find route until demanded

 When tries to find the destination “on demand”, it uses flooding technique to
propagate the query.
 Do not consume bandwidth for sending information.
 They consume bandwidth only, when the node start transmitting the data to the
destination node.

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6.1.1 Ad-Hoc on Demand Distance Vector Protocol (AODV):
AODV is described in RFC 3561. It’s reactive protocol, when a node wishes to start
transmission with another node in the network to which it has no route; AODV will provide
topology information for the node. AODV use control messages to find a route to the
destination node in the network. There are three types of control messages in AODV which
are discussed bellow.
Route Request Message (RREQ):
Source node that needs to communicate with another node in the network transmits RREQ
message. AODV floods RREQ message, using expanding ring technique. There is a time to
live (TTL) value in every RREQ message, the value of TTL states the number of hops the
RREQ should be transmitted.
Route Reply Message (RREP):
A node having a requested identity or any intermediate node that has a route to the requested
node generates a route reply RREP message back to the originator node.
Route Error Message (RERR):
Every node in the network keeps monitoring the link status to its neighbor’s nodes during
active routes. When the node detects a link crack in an active route, (RERR) message is
generated by the node in order to notify other nodes that the link is down.
Route Discovery Mechanism in AODV:-
When a node “A” wants to initiate transmission with another node “G” as shown in the Fig. ,
it will generate a route request message (RREQ). This message is propagated through a
limited flooding to other nodes. This control message is forwarded to the neighbors, and
those node forward the control message to their neighbors’ nodes. This process of finding
destination node goes on until it finds a node that has fresh enough routes to the destination
or destination node is located itself. Once the destination node is located or an intermediate
node with enough fresh routes is located, they generate control message route reply message
(RREP) to the source node. When RREP reaches the source node, a route is established
between the source node “A” and destination node “G”. Once the route is established
between “A” and “G”, node “A” and “G” can communicate with each other. Fig. depicts the
exchange of control messages between source node and destination node.

Fig: 13 AODV Route Discovery

When there is a link down or a link between destinations is broken that causes one or more
than one links unreachable from the source node or neighbors nodes, the RERR message is
sent to the source node. When RREQ message is broadcasted for locating the destination
node i.e. from the node “A” to the neighbors nodes, at node “E” the link is broken between

17
“E” and “G”, so a route error RERR message is generated at node “E” and transmitted to the
source node informing the source node a route error, where “A” is source node and “G” is the
destination node. The scheme is shown in the Fig. below.

Fig: 15 Route Error Message in AODV

6.1.2 Dynamic Source Routing Protocol:

Dynamic source routing protocol abbreviated as DSR is also a reactive protocol. DSR use to
update its route caches by finding new routes. It updates its cache with new route discovered
or when there exist a direct route between source and destination node. When a node wants to
transmit data, it defines a route for the transmission and then starts transmitting data through
the defined route. There are two processes for route discovery and maintenance which are
described below.

Route Discovery Process:

When a source node wants to start data transmission with another node in the network, it
checks its routing cache. When there is no route available to the destination in its cache or a
route is expired, it broadcast RREQ. When the destination is located or any intermediate node
that has fresh enough route to the destination node, RREP is generated. When the source
node receives the RREP it updates its caches and the traffic is routed through the route.

Route Maintenance Process:

When the transmission of data started, it is the responsibility of the node that is transmitting
data to confirm the next hop received the data along with source route. The node generates a
route error message, if it does not receive any confirmation to the originator node. The
originator node again performs new route discovery process.

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6.2 Proactive Protocols (Table driven)
Proactive routing protocols work as the other way around as compared to reactive routing
protocols. These protocols constantly maintain the updated topology of the network. Every
node in the network knows about the other node in advance, in other words the whole
network is known to all the nodes making that network. All the routing information is usually
kept in tables. Whenever there is a change in the network topology, these tables are updated
according to the change. The nodes exchange topology information with each other; they can
have route information any time when they needed.
6.2.1 Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR):
The Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol is described in RFC3626. OLSR is
proactive routing protocol that is also known as table driven protocol by the fact that it
updates its routing tables. OLSR has also three types of control messages which are describe
bellow.
Hello
This control message is transmitted for sensing the neighbor and for Multi Point Distribution
Relays (MPR) calculation.
Topology Control (TC)
These are link state signaling that is performed by OLSR. MPRs are used to optimize theses
messaging.
Multiple Interface Declaration (MID)
MID messages contains the list of all IP addresses used by any node in the network. All the
nodes running OLSR transmit these messages on more than one interface.
OLSR Working:
Multi Point Relaying (MPR):
OLSR diffuses the network topology information by flooding the packets throughout the
network. The flooding is done in such way that each node that received the packets
retransmits the received packets. These packets contain a sequence number so as to avoid
loops. The receiver nodes register this sequence number making sure that the packet is
retransmitted once. The basic concept of MPR is to reduce the duplication or loops of
retransmissions of the packets.
Only MPR nodes broadcast route packets. The nodes within the network keep a list of MPR
nodes. MPR nodes are selected with in the vicinity of the source node. The selection of MPR
is based on HELLO message sent between the neighbor nodes. The selection of MPR is such
that, a path exist to each of its 2 hop neighbors through MPR node. Routes are established,
once it is done the source node that wants to initiate transmission can start sending data.

19
 Fig: 16 Flooding Packets using MPR

Fig: 17 Hello Message Exchange

6.3 Hybrid Protocols

Hybrid protocols exploit the strengths of both reactive and proactive protocols, and combine
them together to get better results. The network is divided into zones, and use different
protocols in two different zones i.e. one protocol is used within zone, and the other protocol
is used between them. Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) is the example of Hybrid Routing
Protocol. ZRP uses proactive mechanism for route establishment within the nodes
neighborhood, and for communication amongst the neighborhood it takes the advantage of
reactive protocols. These local neighborhoods are known as zones, and the protocol is named
for the same reason as zone routing protocol. Each zone can have different size and each
node may be within multiple overlapping zones. The size of zone is given by radius of length
P, where P is number of hops to the perimeter of the zone.

20
7. SECURITY CONCERNS IN MANETs

Security in Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is the most important concern for the basic
functionality of network. Availability of network services, confidentiality and integrity of the
data can be achieved by assuring that security issues have been met. MANET often suffer
from security attacks because of its features like open medium, changing its topology
dynamically, lack of central monitoring and management, cooperative algorithms and no
clear defense mechanism. These factors have changed the battle field situation for the
MANET against the security threats.
In the last few years, security of computer networks has been of serious concern which has
widely been discussed and formulized. Most of the discussions involved only static and
networking based on wired systems. However, mobile Ad-Hoc networking is still in need of
further discussions and development in terms of security. With the emergence of ongoing and
new approaches for networking, new problems and issues arises for the basics of routing.
With the comparison of wired network Mobile Ad-Hoc network is different. The routing
protocols designed majorly for internet is different from the mobile Ad-Hoc networks
(MANET). Traditional routing table was basically made for the hosts which are connected
wired to a non dynamic backbone. Due to which it is not possible to support Ad-Hoc
networks mainly due to the movement and dynamic topology of networks.
Due to various factors including lack of infrastructure, absence of already established trust
relationship in between the different nodes and dynamic topology, the routing protocols are
vulnerable to various attacks.
Major vulnerabilities which have been so far researched are mostly these types which include
selfishness, dynamic nature, and severe resource restriction and also open network medium.
Despite of the above said protocols in MANET, there are attacks which can be categorized in
Passive, Active, Internal, External and network-layer attacks, Routing attacks and Packet
forwarding attacks.
MANET work without a centralized administration where node communicates with each
other on the base of mutual trust. This characteristic makes MANET more vulnerable to be
exploited by an attacker from inside the network. Wireless links also makes the MANET
more susceptible to attacks which make it easier for the attacker to go inside the network and
get access to the ongoing communication. Mobile nodes present within the range of wireless
link can overhear and even participate in the network.

7.1 Security Goals:

The goals of security mechanism of MANETs are similar to that of other networks. Security
is a great issue in network especially in MANETs where security attacks can affect the
nodes limited resources and consume them or waste the time before rote chain broke.
Security is a vectored term of multi systems, procedures and functions that works
together to reach certain level of security attributes,

21
 Fig: 17 Types of Security Goals

7.1.1 Confidentiality
Confidentiality ensures that computer-related assets are accessed only by authorized parties.
That is, only those who should have access to something will actually get that access. To
maintain confidentiality of some confidential information, it is needed to keep them secret
from all entities that do not have privilege to access them. Confidentiality is sometimes called
secrecy or privacy.

7.1.2 Integrity
Integrity means that assets can be modified only by authorized parties or only in authorized
way. Modification includes writing, changing status, deleting and creating. Integrity assures
that a message being transferred is never corrupted. The integrity of a network depends on all
nodes in the network following correct routing procedures so that every node has correct
routing information. Therefore threats to integrity are those which either introduce incorrect
routing information or alter existing information.

Fig: 18 CIA Triad

7.1.3 Availability
Availability means the assets are accessible to authorized parties at appropriate times.
Availability applies both to data and to services. It ensures the survivability of network
service despite denial of service attack.

22
7.1.4 Authentication
Authentication enables a node to ensure the identity of peer node it is communicating with.
Authentication is essentially assurance that participants in communication are authenticated
and not impersonators. Authenticity is ensured because only the legitimate sender can
produce a message that will decrypt properly with the shared key.

7.1.5 Non repudiation

Non repudiation ensures that sender and receiver of a message cannot disavow that they have
ever sent or received such a message .This is helpful when discrimination is required if a
node with some undesired function is compromised or not.

7.1.6 Authorization
This property assigns different access rights to different types of users. For example a
network management can be performed by network administrator only.

7.2 Vulnerabilities of MANETs

7.2.1 Wireless Links: First of all, the use of wireless links makes the network susceptible to
attacks such as eavesdropping and active interference. Unlike wired networks, attackers do
not need physical access to the network to carry out these attacks. Furthermore wireless
networks typically have lower bandwidths than wired networks. Attackers can exploit this
feature, consuming network bandwidth with ease to prevent normal communication among
nodes.

7.2.2 Dynamic Topology: MANET nodes can leave and join the network, and move
independently. As a result the network topology can change frequently. It is hard to
differentiate normal behavior of the network from anomaly/malicious behavior in this
dynamic environment. For example, a node sending disruptive routing information can be a
malicious node, or else simply be using outdated information in good faith. Moreover
mobility of nodes means that we cannot assume nodes, especially critical ones (servers, etc.),
are secured in locked cabinets as in wired networks. Nodes with inadequate physical
protection may often be at risk of being captured and compromised.
Cooperativeness: Routing algorithms for MANETs usually assume that nodes are cooperative
and no malicious.
As a result, a malicious attacker can easily become an important routing agent and disrupt
network operations by disobeying the protocol specifications.
For example, a node can pose as a neighbor to other nodes and participate in collective
decision-making mechanisms, possibly affecting networking significantly.

7.2.3 Lack of a Clear Line of Defense: MANETs do not have a clear line of defense; attacks
can come from all directions. The boundary that separates the inside network from the
outside world is not very clear on MANETs. For example, there is no well defined place
where we can deploy our traffic monitoring, and access control mechanisms. Whereas all
traffic goes through switches, routers, or gateways in wired networks, network information in
MANETs is distributed across nodes that can only see the packets sent and received in their
transmission range.

7.2.4 Limited Resources: Resource constraints are a further vulnerability. There can be a
variety of devices on MANETs, ranging from laptops to handheld devices such as PDAs and

23
mobile phones. These will generally have different computing and storage capacities that can
be the focus of new attacks.
For example, mobile nodes generally run on battery power. This has led to emergence of
innovative attacks targeting this aspect, e.g. “Sleep Deprivation Torture”. Furthermore, the
introduction of more security features into the network increases the computation,
communication and management load. This is a challenge for networks that are already
resource-constrained.

7.3 Flaws in MANETS

MANETs are very flexible for the nodes i.e. nodes can freely join and leave the network.
There is no main body that keeps watching on the nodes entering and leaving the network.
All these weaknesses of MANETs make it vulnerable to attacks and these are discussed
bellow.
7.3.1 Non Secure Boundaries:
MANET is vulnerable to different kind of attacks due to no clear secure boundary. The nature
of MANET, nodes have the freedom to join and leave inside the network. Node can join a
network automatically if the network is in the radio range of the node, thus it can
communicate with other nodes in the network. Due to no secure boundaries, MANET is more
susceptible to attacks. The attacks may be passive or active, leakage of information, false
message reply, denial of service or changing the data integrity. The links are compromised
and are open to various link attacks. Attacks on the link interfere between the nodes and then
invading the link, destroying the link after performing malicious behavior.
There is no protection against attacks like firewalls or access control, which result the
vulnerability of MANET to attacks. Spoofing of node’s identity, data tempering, confidential
information leakage and impersonating node are the results of such attacks when security is
compromised.
7.3.2 Compromised Node:
Some of the attacks are to get access inside the network in order to get control over the node
in the network using unfair means to carry out their malicious activities. Mobile nodes in
MANET are free to move, join or leave the network in other words the mobile nodes are
autonomous. Due to this autonomous factor for mobile nodes it is very difficult for the nodes
to prevent malicious activity it is communicating with. Ad-hoc network mobility makes it
easier for a compromised node to change its position so frequently making it more difficult
and troublesome to track the malicious activity. It can be seen that these threats from
compromised nodes inside the network is more dangerous than attacking threats from outside
the network.

7.3.3 No Central Management

MANET is a self-configurable network, which consists of Mobile nodes where the
communication among these mobile nodes is done without a central control. Each and every
node act as router and can forward and receive packets. MANET works without any
preexisting infrastructure. This lack of centralized management leads MANET more
vulnerable to attacks. Detecting attacks and monitoring the traffic in highly dynamic and for
large scale Ad-Hoc network is very difficult due to no central management. When there is a
central entity taking care of the network by applying proper security, authentication which
node can join and which can’t. The node connect which each other on the basis of blind
mutual trust on each other, a central entity can manage this by applying a filter on the nodes
to find out the suspicious one, and let the other nodes know which node is suspicious.

24
7.3.4 Problem of Scalability:
In traditional networks, where the network is built and each machine is connected to the other
machine with help of wire. The network topology and the scale of the network, while
designing it is defined and it do not change much during its life. In other words we can say
that the scalability of the network is defined in the beginning phase of the designing of the
network. The case is quite opposite in MANETs because the nodes are mobile and due to
their mobility in MANETs, the scale of the MANETs is changing. It is too hard to know and
predict the numbers of nodes in the MANETs in the future. The nodes are free to move in and
out of the Ad-Hoc network which makes the Ad-Hoc network very much scalable and
shrinkable. Keeping this property of the MANET, the protocols and all the services that a
MANET provides must be adaptable to such changes.

7.4 Security Attacks in MANET:

The characteristics of MANETs make the susceptible to many new attacks. At the top level
attacks can be classified according to network protocol stacks. Table gives a few examples of
attacks at each layer. Some attacks could occur in any layer of the network protocol stack,
e.g. jamming at physical layer, hello flood at network layer, and SYN flood at transport layer
are all DoS attacks. Because new routing protocols introduce new forms of attacks on
MANETs, we mainly focus on network layer attacks in this paper.

Table: 1 Some Attacks on Protocol Stack

The attacks can be categorized on the basis of the source of the attacks i.e. Internal or
External, and on the behavior of the attack i.e. Passive or Active attack. This classification is
important because the attacker can exploit the network either as internal, external or/ as well
as active or passive attack against the network.

25
 Fig: 19 Classifications of Security Attacks in MANET

7.4.1 Active and Passive Attack

In active attack the attacker disrupts the performance of the network, steal important
information and try to destroy the data during the exchange in the network. Active attacks can
be an internal or an external attack. The active attacks are meant to destroy the performance
of network in such case the active attack act as internal node in the network. Being an active
part of the network it is easy for the node to exploit and hijack any internal node to use it to
introduce bogus packets injection or denial of service. This attack brings the 18 Attacker in
strong position where attacker can modify, fabricate and replays the massages. Attackers in
passive attacks do not disrupt the normal operations of the network. In Passive attack, the
attacker listen to network in order to get information, what is going on in the network? It
listens to the network in order to know and understand how the nodes are communicating
with each other, how they are located in the network. Before the attacker launch an attack
against the network, the attacker has enough information about the network that it can easily
hijack and inject attack in the network.

Fig: 20 Active and Passive Attacks in MANET

26
7.4.2 External and Internal Attack
External attackers are mainly outside the networks who want to get access to the network and
once they get access to the network they start sending bogus packets, denial of service in
order to disrupt the performance of the whole network. This attack is same, like the attacks
that are made against wired network. These attacks can be prevented by implementing
security measures such as firewall, where the access of unauthorized person to the network
can be mitigated. While in internal attack the attacker wants to have normal access to the
network as well as participate in the normal activities of the network. The attacker gain
access in the network as new node either by compromising a current node in the network or
by malicious impersonation and start its malicious behavior. Internal attack is more severe
attacks then external attacks.

Fig: 21 External and Internal Attacks in MANET

7.4.3 Eavesdropping
This is a passive attack. The node simply observes the confidential information. This
information can be later used by the malicious node. The secret information like location,
public key, private key, password etc. can be fetched by eavesdropper.

7.4.4 Impersonation
If the authentication mechanism is not properly implemented a malicious node can act as a
genuine node and monitor the network traffic. It can also send fake routing packets, and gain
access to some confidential information.

7.4.5Denial of Service attack

This attack aims to attack the availability of a node or the entire network. If the attack is
successful the services will not be available. The attacker generally uses radio signal jamming
and the battery exhaustion method.

27
7.4.6 Jamming
In jamming, attacker initially keep monitoring wireless medium in order to determine
frequency at which destination node is receiving signal from sender. It then transmit signal on
that frequency so that error free receptor is hindered.

7.4.7 Man- in- the- middle attack

An attacker sites between the sender and receiver and sniffs any information being sent
between two nodes. In some cases, attacker may impersonate the sender to communicate with
receiver or impersonate the receiver to reply to the sender.

7.4.8 Routing Attacks

The malicious node makes routing services a target because it’s an important service in
MANETs. There are two flavors to this routing attack. One is attack on routing protocol and
another is attack on packet forwarding or delivery mechanism. The first is aimed at blocking
the propagation of routing information to a node. The latter is aimed at disturbing the packet
delivery against a predefined path. Etc.

7.4.9 BLACK HOLE ATTACK IN MANET

MANETs face different securities threats i.e. attack that are carried out against them to
disrupt the normal performance of the networks. These attacks are categorized in previous
chapter “security issues in MANET” on the basis of their nature. In these attacks, black hole
attack is that kind of attack which occurs in Mobile Ad-Hoc networks (MANET). This
chapter describes Black Hole attack and other attacks that are carried out against MANETs.

In black hole attack, a malicious node uses its routing protocol in order to advertise itself for
having the shortest path to the destination node or to the packet it wants to intercept.
This hostile node advertises its availability of fresh routes irrespective of checking its routing
table. In this way attacker node will always have the availability in replying to the route
request and thus intercept the data packet and retain it. In protocol based on flooding, the
malicious node reply will be received by the requesting node before the reception of reply
from actual node; hence a malicious and forged route is created. When this route is establish,
now it’s up to the node whether to drop all the packets or forward it to the unknown address.
The method how malicious node fits in the data routes varies. Fig. shows how black hole
problem arises, here node “A” want to send data packets to node “D” and initiate the route
discovery process. So if node “C” is a malicious node then it will claim that it has active
route to the specified destination as soon as it receives RREQ packets. It will then send the
response to node “A” before any other node. In this way node “A” will think that this is the
active route and thus active route discovery is complete. Node “A” will ignore all other
replies and will start seeding data packets to node “C”. In this way all the data packet will be
lost consumed or lost.

28
 Fig: 22 Black Hole Problems

The malicious node will drop now all the data to which it belong in the route.

Fig: 23 Black Hole Attack Specifications

In AODV black hole attack the malicious node “A” first detect the active route in between
the sender “E” and destination node “D”. The malicious node “A” then send the RREP which
contains the spoofed destination address including small hop count and large sequence
number than normal to node “C”. This node “C” forwards this RREP to the sender node “E”.
Now this route is used by the sender to send the data and in this way data will arrive at the
malicious node. These data will then be dropped. In this way sender and destination node will
be in no position any more to communicate in state of black hole attack.

29
7.4.10 Wormhole Attack
Wormhole attack is a severe attack in which two attackers placed themselves strategically in
the network. The attackers then keep on hearing the network, record the wireless data. The
fig. bellow shows the two attackers placed themselves in a strong strategic location in the
network.

Fig: 24 Wormhole Attack

In wormhole attack, the attacker gets themselves in strong strategic location in the network.
They make the use of their location i.e. they have shortest path between the nodes as shown
in the Fig. above. They advertise their path letting the other nodes in the network to know
they have the shortest path for the transmitting their data. The wormhole attacker creates a
tunnel in order to records the ongoing communication and traffic at one network position and
channels them to another position in the network. When the attacker nodes create a direct link
between each other in the network. The wormhole attacker then receives packets at one end
and transmits the packets to the other end of the network. When the attackers are in such
position the attack is known as out of band wormhole.
The other type of wormhole attack is known as in band wormhole attack. In this type of
attack the attacker builds an overlay tunnel over the existing wireless medium. This attack is
potentially very much harmful and is the most preferred choice for the attacker. Etc.

7.4.11 Snooping
Snooping is unauthorized access to another person's data. It is similar to eavesdropping but is
not necessarily limited to gaining access to data during its transmission. Snooping can include
casual observance of an e-mail that appears on another's computer screen or watching what
someone else is typing. More sophisticated snooping uses software programs to remotely
monitor activity on a computer or network device.
Malicious hackers (crackers) frequently use snooping techniques to monitor key strokes,
capture passwords and login information and to intercept e-mail and other private
communications and data transmissions. Corporations sometimes snoop on employees
legitimately to monitor their use of business computers and track Internet usage.
Governments may snoop on individuals to collect information and prevent crime and
terrorism.
Although snooping has a negative aspect in general but in computer technology snooping can
refer to any program or utility that performs a monitoring function. For example, a snoop

30
server is used to capture network traffic for analysis, and the snooping protocol monitors
information on a computer bus to ensure efficient processing.

7.5 Security Solutions for MANET

Layer Attacks Solution

Repudiation, data corruption Detecting and

Application
preventing virus,
Layer
worms, malicious

codes and

application abuses

by use of Firewalls,

IDS.

Transport Session hijacking, SYN Flooding Authentication and securing

end-to-end or point-to-point
Layer
communication use of public

cryptography(SSL, TLS, PCT)

etc.

Network Routing protocol attacks (e.g. DSR, Protecting the ad

AODV
Layer hoc routing and
etc.),Wormhole, blackhole, Byzantine,
forwarding protocols
flooding, resource consumption,

location disclosure attacks

Data Link Traffic analysis, monitoring, Protecting the wireless MAC

disruption MAC (802.11), WEP
Layer weakness etc. protocol and providing link
layer security support.

31
Physical Eavesdropping, Jamming, Preventing signal jamming
Layer denial-of-service attacks by
Interceptions. using Spread

Spectrum Mechanism.

Table: 2 Security Solution of MANET

32
8. Mobility in MANET

Mobility: the fact that nodes move is probably the most important attribute of MANETs.
Mobility differentiates MANETs from their close cousins, the sensor networks. Mobility
dictates network and application level protocols.

8.1 Mobility Models

To evaluate the performance of a protocol for an ad hoc network, it is necessary to test the
protocol under realistic conditions, especially including the movement of the mobile nodes.
Surveys of different mobility models have been done. This includes the Random Waypoint
Mobility Model that is used in our work.

8.1.1 Random Walk Mobility Model

Random Walk Mobility Model is based on random directions and speeds. By randomly
choosing a direction between 0 and 2 and a speed between 0 and Vmax, the mobile node moves
from its current position. A recalculation of speed and direction occurs after a given time or a
given distance walked. The random walk mobility model is memory less. Future directions
and speeds are independent of the past speeds and directions. This can cause unrealistic
movement such as sharp turns or sudden stops. If the specified time or distance is short, the
nodes are only walking on a very restricted area on the simulation area.

8.1.2 Random Waypoint Mobility Model

A mobile node begins the simulation by waiting a specified pause-time. After this time it
selects a random destination in the area and a random speed distributed uniformly between 0
and Vmax. After reaching its destination point, the mobile node waits again pause-time
seconds before choosing a new way point and speed. The mobile nodes are initially
distributed over the simulation area. This distribution is not representative to the final
distribution caused by node movements. To ensure a random initial configuration for each
simulation, it is necessary to discard a certain simulation time and to start registering
simulation results after that time. The Random Waypoint Mobility Model is very widely used
in simulation studies of MANET. One of the most important parameters in mobile ad hoc
simulations is the nodal speed. The users want to adjust the average speed to be stabilized
around a certain value and not to change over time. They also want to be able to compare the
performance of the mobile ad hoc routing protocols under different nodal speeds.

There are some limitations of random waypoint mobility model:

 Temporal dependency
 Spatial dependency
 Geographic restrictions

33
8.1.3 Random Direction Mobility Model
To reduce density waves in the average number of neighbors by the Random Waypoint
Model the Random Direction Mobility Model was created. Density waves are the clustering
of nodes in one part of the simulation area. For the Random Waypoint Mobility Model the
probability of choosing a location near the center or a waypoint which requires traveling
through the center of the area is high. The Random Direction Mobility Model was invented to
prevent this behavior and to promote a semi-constant number of neighbors. The mobile node
selects a direction and travels to the border of the simulation area. If the boundary is reached,
the node pauses for a specific time and then chooses a new direction and the process goes on.

34
9 CONCLUSIONS
We can conclude that the importance of MANET can’t be denied as the world of computing
is getting portable and compact. Mobile ad hoc network have the ability to setup networks on
the fly in a harsh environment where it may not possible to deploy a traditional network
infrastructure.

In any kind of communications, security is considered as an essential requirement for making

the system much more reliable. Security is not only issue but due to mobility and open media
nature, the mobile ad hoc networks are much more prone to all kinds of security risks, such as
information disclosure, intrusion, or even denial of service.

MANET is the future networks because they are practically versatile, easy to use, and
inexpensive and can instantly updates and reconfigures itself.

When routing protocols AODV and DSR are considered, it is obvious that AODV Performs
better in cases of heavily loaded networks. This is mainly due to the route table entry
mechanism employed.

35
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