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Kinship (Part-2)

KINSHIP: Consanguinity and Affinity:

 If the relationship between one person and another —>involves descent, the two are consanguine (blood)
relatives.
Example, the relationship between father and son.
 If the relationship has been established through marriage, it is affinal relationship
Example the relationship of a person and his/her mother-in-law.

Consanguineal Kins Affinal Kins

 Bonds that are formed due to blood relationships.  Bonds formed by marriage.

 The focus in many societies is on social recognition  It has a social and legal basis and recognition.
and social ties.

Robin Fox's kinship features:

1. Male impregnates—> female for childbirth.
2. Women's role in childbearing—> can limit economic involvement.
3. Men often control —> economic systems.
4. Incest taboo leads—> to exogamy and alliance creation.
These features shape kinship, —> reflecting reproduction, gender roles, —> economic influence, and social norms
in societies.
This represents patriarchal + patrilineal societies, therefore women had to be "brought out" ( patrilocal ) from their
families.
KINSHIP: Function based on structure:
Vertical Function:
 This dimension encompasses the —> roles and responsibilities —>that are passed down —>across
generations within a kinship system.
 It involves—> the transmission of —> social, economic, and cultural obligations —>from parents to their
children.
 Continuity of family traditions, inheritance norms, and societal values —> is ensured through this function.
Horizontal Functions:
 Horizontal functions within the kin group —>might include activities and interactions —>among individuals
of the same generation.
 Involves peer relationships, mutual support , —> decision-making processes, and shared responsibilities
within a generation.
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Figure: Depicting vertical and horizontal functions among kin groups.

KINSHIP: Degree of Kins
Primary Kins:
 Individuals who are directly related to the ego.
 These are intimate familial relations.
Example - Father, mother, brother.
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Figure: Depicting Primary kin.

Secondary Kins:
 They represent a group of individuals who are the primary kin of our primary kin.
 In other words, their kinship connection derives from their association with our primary kin, thus categorising
them as our secondary kin.
Example: father's brother (chacha), sister's husband (bahnoi) is secondary

Figure: Depicting Primary and Secondary kin.

Tertiary kins:
 Individuals who are either the secondary kin of our primary kin or the primary kin of our secondary kin.
 These relationships often bridge the gap between primary and secondary kin, serving as connectors
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For instance,
—>consider the example of the wife of one's brother-in-law (referred to as "sala" in Hindi).
—>In this case, the wife of the brother-in-law holds a tertiary kinship status, —> because she is the primary kin of
the brother-in-law, who is the secondary kin of the ego.

Figure: Depicting Primary, Secondary and tertiary kin.

KINSHIP: Descent
Definition:
 Descent refers to a person's affiliation and association with his/her kinsman.
 In a patrilineal society, a person traces his descent through his father while in a matrilineal society, the descent
is traced through the mother.
 Descent is the genealogical linkage between an individual and his/her ancestors.
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Importance:
 As a means for one person to assert rights, duties, privileges, or status—>in relation to another person, who
may be related to the first —>either because one is an ancestor to the other or because the two acknowledge a
common ancestor.
 Descent has a special influence when rights to succession, inheritance, or residence follow kinship lines.
 Descent is a cultural rule exhibiting huge diversity but still has a common truth of recognizing blood relations.
CASE STUDY :
KINSHIP IN INDIA- Contrast in rules of marriage/kinship practices between South India and North India —>put
forward by Iravati Karve.
In India, marriage practices vary between the southern and northern regions..
 In the south, marriages are often—>between close relatives, such as cross-cousins.
 The bride and groom are usually —> from the same village or nearby area, so the bride is already familiar with
her in-laws.
 On the contrary in the north, —>marriages are almost never between close relatives.
 Brides are given to and taken —>from other villages or towns, often at a considerable distance.
 The bride comes to her husband's family—> as a stranger and is often —>suspected of trying to alienate her
husband's affections.
 In this region, marriages also often—> unite groups of unequal social status, —>with the wife-givers being of
inferior status to the wife-takers.
KINSHIP USAGES AND BEHAVIOUR:
Avoidance and Joking Relationship:
 In North India's patrilineal society, there's a norm of "avoidance," —> where kin maintain distance and
restrictions in interaction, —> like father-in-law avoiding daughter-in-law.
 "Joking relationship" is its opposite, —>allowing ease between daughter-in-law and younger in-laws. These
interactions balance respect and conflict, —> with joking relations reducing tension and improving solidarity.
Avunculate and Amitate:
 In matrilineal societies, Avunculate is observed—> between a mother's brother and her children.
 The maternal uncle—> takes on fatherly responsibilities for the children—> who inherit his possessions.
 It is found in Melanesia, Fiji, Africa, and South India's Nayars.
 Among patrilineal groups, —>amitate honours the father's sister, granting her —>influence over her nephew.
 As seen in Polynesian Tonga, South India's Toda, and other communities.
 It prevents neglect of father's sisters—> especially when they're away from in-laws.
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Kinship vs Descent:

KINSHIP DESCENT

 Defined with reference to an individual (ego) or  Defined with reference to an ancestor (or
pairs of individuals. ancestress)

 Universally important  Culturally recognized only in some societies

 Kinship relationships are relative; you are a son  Descent status is, in a sense, absolute. You are, or
or a nephew only to some particular person. are not, a member of a particular descent group.

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Kinship (Part-3)

KINSHIP: Rules of Descent

Definition:
Rules that connect individuals with particular sets of kins because of known or presumed common ancestry are
called Rules of Descent.
1. Unilineal Descent
 Patrilineal
 Matrilineal
2. Multilineal/ Non-Unilineal Descent
 Double
 Bilateral
 Parallel
 Ambilineal
Unilineal:
Where one traces his/her descent from (either father or mother)
The two basic forms
1. Patrilineal descent:
 Patrilineal descent traces —>lineage through the male (father) line
 Inheritance, status, authority linked —>to paternal lineage.
 Children (sons and daughters) —>belong to their father's group.
 Grandchildren born through the sons—> are part of their paternal grandfather's group.
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Figure: Patrilineal Descent

Example:
 In patrilineal societies like —>classical Romans, Chinese, and Hindu society—>a son's children continue
his lineage, —>while a daughter's children join their mother's husband's lineage.
2. Matrilineal descent:
 Matrilineal descent traces —>lineage through females.
 Inheritance, status, and property—> follow maternal lineage.
 Matrilineal groups usually include —> a woman, her siblings, children, sister's children, and daughter's
children.

Figure: Matrilineal Descent

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Example:
 Among Ashanti of Ghana, —> the maternal uncle holds authority.
 Son inherits —>maternal uncle's property.
 Other examples of matrilineal societies:
 Trobriand Islanders, Khasis, Nayars, Navajo, Cherokee, Iroquois, and Indonesian tribes.
KINSHIP: Rules of Descent
Double Descent:
 This Descent is traced through both the patrilineal and the matrilineal group with attendant rights and
obligations but assigns to each a different set of expectations.

 For instance, —> the inheritance of immovable materials, such as land, —> may be the domain of the
patrilineage, —> while the matrilineage controls the inheritance of moveable objects—> such as livestock,
agricultural produce, and cultural items such as jewellery.

Figure: Double Descent

Example:
Yako Pastoral Herders of Nigeria:
 The Yako of Africa has a system of double descent.
 Among the Yako, —>patrilineal descent has economic rights to farmland, house sites, and cooperative
labour.
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 Further it practises joint residence for all members, that is, —> men of the same patrilineal clan live
together and cooperate in farming activities.
 They also recognize matrilineal descent —> which governs the inheritance of transferable wealth —>
such as livestock and currency.
Case study: Legacy of Achiku, among Sumi Nagas:
 The Sumi Nagas of Nagaland, are basically a patrilineal society.
 During marriage, an Achiku, a traditional necklace —> is inherited from mother to daughter, maintaining
the lineage.
 This necklace, although holds very little monetary worth—> holds significance as a cherished family heirloom
(legacy) —> when passed on from mother to daughter.
Parallel Descent:
 Every individual, either male or female traces descent lineally i.e. males trace descent from the male line and
females trace descent from the female line.
There is no overlapping of descent.

Figure: Parallel Descent

Example: Kogi People of Santa Marta
Ambilineal Descent:
 Ambilineal descent is a form of descent wherein a person can choose the kin group to affiliate with, either his
father's kin group or his mother's.
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Figure: Ambilocal Descent

Example: Kwakiutl Tribe of British Columbia
Bilateral Descent:
 The system of descent in which a child is recognized as a descendant equally of both the father and the mother.
 A Bilateral descent is a kinship system wherein a person gives equal emphasis to both his mother's and father's
kin.
 Here no unilineal groups can be formed but group structure can be cognatic, that is, the group of kin persons
on the father's and mother's side.
 Membership can be acquired through either the father or the mother.

Figure: Bilateral Descent

Example: Javanese People of Indonesia

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KINSHIP (Part-4)

Definitions:
A descent group is a group in which all members share a common ancestor and each member is a descendant.
Representation:

Figure: Relationship between tribe, moiety, phartry, clan and lineage.

Lineage:
 A consanguineal kin group produced by either of unilineal descent is technically known as lineage.
 It produces only persons who can actually trace their common relationship through a specific series of
remembered genealogical linkage in the prevailing line of descent.
 A lineage generally includes ancestors of five to six generations in a sequence.
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Figure: Depicting Patrilineage.

Lineage may be of 2 types-patrilineage and matrilineage.
 All members of a lineage have full psychological unity.
 Lineage provides social security to its members. It co-operates with all the members of a lineage in the
economic field for example in agriculture.
 During the time of crises the lineage members united and co-operate with each other.
Characteristics of Lineage:
1. Common Religious Obligations:
 Lineages often share —>common religious beliefs and practices.
 Members of a lineage may be required to participate in specific—> religious ceremonies, rituals, or
festivals together.
For instance- various lineages may have specific ancestral worship —> rituals or festivals that are unique to their
lineage—> Observance of "Pitru Paksha" in hinduism.
2. Social Control:
 Lineages can serve as a —>means of social control within a community.
 Members are expected to adhere to certain —>norms and values established by the lineage.
For Example- The Dogon people of Mali —> employ lineage based councils to enforce —>rules, inheritance
norms, and cultural practices. They maintain social order and resolve conflicts—> while preserving their cultural
heritage.
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3. Mutual Aid:
 Lineages often provide a —> support system for their members.
 This includes economic assistance, emotional support, and help during times of need.
For example- Chinese lineage associations, emphasise on —> shared ancestry, provide financial aid, educational
support—>fostering mutual aid among members
4. Exogamy:
 Exogamy refers to the practice of marrying outside one's own lineage or social group.
 Most lineages encourage exogamy to maintain genetic diversity and strengthen alliances with other
lineages.
Clan:
 Clan is a unilineal kinship group larger than a lineage.
 Here the members are supposed to be descendants from a common ancestor but the genealogical links are not
specified.
 Clans are largely exogamous in nature.
Case Study on Totemic Clan
Totemism is the notion that individuals—>share a connection with a specific animal, plant, or natural entity by —
>virtue of descent from a common ancestral spirit.
Totemic clans can attribute their lineage to various non-human entities, such as tigers, birds, or natural phenomena
like thunder.
 For instance, within the Kimberly tribe of Australian Aborigines, one of the clans traces its heritage back to
the butcher bird, known as "karadada."
 Goat clan is seen among Gonds.
Characteristics of Clan:
1. Name:
 Identification: Clans often have —> distinct names that identify them —>within a larger community or
society.
 Often named after animals, plants and natural phenomenon.
For Example - Some clans associated with —> Iroquois Confederacy include—>Turtle Clan, Wolf Clan, and
Bear Clan.
2. Exogamy:
 Clans often practice exogamy, —>where members are encouraged or required to marry individuals—>
from outside their own clan.
Example: Todas follow clan exogamy.
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3. Corporate Character:
 Collective Identity: Clans are viewed as a collective entity with shared interests, rights and
responsibilities.
 Clans often cooperate as cohesive units—-> where cooperation among members —>is highly valued.
Example: Yako, Ashanti (horticultural tribes)
 Decision-Making: Clans may have councils or leadership structures.
Example- Clan councils among some scottish clans.
4. Common Religious Obligations:
 Religious Practices: Many clans have common religious obligations—>that are unique to their clan's
traditions.
Example: The Cherokee Nation in Native American culture has clans, each associated with specific
animal totems and religious responsibilities
Lineage Vs Clan:

Lineage Clan

1. Demonstrated Descent 1. Stipulated Descent

2. Part of Clan 2. Two or more lineages

3. Composed of several families 3. Composed of several lineages

4. Kinshp tracd ovr a definite number of generations. 4. Kinship is acknowledged for over several generations

5. Small group, may reside together 5. Large group, may not reside together.

6. Always a corporate group 6. Not always

Phratry:
 An interrelation between two or more clans makes phratry. It is therefore, a larger unilineal descent group than
a clan.
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Figure: Relationship between Phartry and Clan.

 The term Phratry is derived from the Greek term 'phrater' meaning brother.
 All the clans in a phratry have their own original identity apart from the identity that links them to the group
 A phratry may or may not be exogamous.
 Phratries thus are organized around either a division of labor or distinct ritual functions.
 For example, 13 clans among Crow Indians are found to be grouped into 6 nameless phratries, 4 of which are
not strict in the rules for marriage.
Characteristics of Phartry:
1. Name:
 May Have: Some tribal groups, —> like the Raj-Gonds, use distinct names to identify their phratries.
 May Not Have: For example, the Hopi tribes do not use —>specific names to identify their phratries.
2. Exogamy:
 May: For example the Muria tribal phratries practice exogamy, —>where members are encouraged
to marry outside their own phratries.
 May Not: For example the Crow Indians—> generally donot practice phratrial exogamy, —>allowing
marriage within the same phratrie.
3. Religious Obligations:
 Variations: Religious obligations within phratries can vary widely among tribes and may include —->
rituals, ceremonies, or festivals —> unique to each phratrie, preserving cultural and spiritual traditions.

Figure: Summary of characteristics of Phartry.

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Moiety:
 It is the largest unilineal social group, which results from the splitting of a society into two halves on the basis
of descent.
 The word moiety comes from the French word meaning "half".
 Moieties may be exogamous or endogamous. People in each moiety believe themselves to be descended from
a common ancestor.
 A moiety can consist of many phratries and it is a bigger unit than a phratry.
 It is the largest unilineal social group, which results from the splitting of a society into two halves on the basis
of descent.
For Example: The Toda of Nilgiris is divided into two moieties - Teivaliol and Tartharol, The Bondos of
Orissa are divided into the Ontal and Killo moieties.

Figure: Depicting Moiety among Todas.

Characteristics of Moiety:
1. NAME:
 May: Moieties, like the Todas, often have—>distinct names to identify each moiety.
 May Not: In some societies, such as certain Australian Aboriginal cultures—> moieties may not have
specific names.
2. EXOGAMY:
 May: Exogamy is commonly practiced among moieties, requiring members to marry outside their own
moiety. For example- Todas
 May Not: Some societies,may not practise moiety-based exogamy, allowing marriage within the same
moiety.
3. TOTEMISM:
 It's a common feature in some cultures—>, but not all moiety-based societies necessarily practice
totemism.
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4. DUAL ORGANIZATION:
 Dual organization, where a society is divided —> into two distinct and complementary groups (moieties),
is a defining characteristic of moiety systems.
 This dual structure forms the foundation for social organization and roles within the society.

Figure: Summary of characteristics of Moiety.

Avoidance:
 In most of the societies, the usages of avoidance act as an incest taboo.
 A father-in-law avoids his daughter-in-law according to traditional social norms.
 The same relationship prevails between a mother-in-law and between the husband's elder brother and the
younger brother's wife.
 This is actually a protective measure against incestuous sexual relations among close relatives who remain in
face-to-face contact every day.
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