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Comboni Secondary and Preparatory School-Hawassa Chemistry G-9 2023

CHEMISTRY FOR GRADE 9

UNIT 5
PHYSICAL STATES OF METTER
5.1 Introduction
Q. What is matter?
 Matter is everything around you.
 Atoms and compounds are all made of very small parts of matter.
 Those atoms go on to build the things you see and touch every day.
 Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space (it has volume).
 It can exist in the form of gas, liquid and solid.
 The simplest example is the water we use in our daily life.
 The three physical states of water are:
• Steam, water in the form of gas.
• Water, in the form of liquid.
• Ice, water in the form of solid.
 The changes of the states of matter are our every day experience.
 That is, ice melts and water freezes; water boils and steam condenses.
 The physical state of a given sample of matter depends on the temperature and pressure.
 Changing these conditions or variables may change the behavior of the substances as solids, liquids or
gases.
The four fundamental states
1. Solid
 A solid has a definite shape and a definite volume.
 Solids are almost completely incompressible and have very high average density.
 A high average density reflects the fact that the particles within solids are usually packed closer than those in
liquids or gases do.
 The tightly packed particles of solids are also highly organized.
 The particles of a solid, whether they are atoms, ions or molecules only vibrate about a fixed point with respect to
the neighboring particles.
 Because of these, the particles maintain a fixed position; for example substances like metals, wood, coal and
stone, are solids.
 The forces between particles are so strong that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate.
 Solids can only change their shape by an outside force, as when broken or cut.
 Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into solids by freezing.
 Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation, and gases can likewise change
directly into solids through deposition.
2. Liquid
 A liquid has a definite volume, but does not have a definite shape.
 Liquids take the shape of their container.
 This is explained in terms of arrangement of particles.
 In the liquid state, particles vibrate about a point, and constantly shift their positions relative to their neighbors.
 At room temperature, water, ethanol, benzene and oil are liquids.
3. Gas
 A gas has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. This is because its particles
 are virtually independent of one another. For example, air, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon
 dioxide and nitrogen are gases.
4. Plasma
 Besides, solid, liquid and gas, there exists a fourth-state of matter at very high temperature (million degrees
Celsius).

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S Chemistry G-9 2023

 At such high temperatures molecules cannot exist.

 Most or all of the atoms are stripped of their electrons.
elec
 This state of matter, a gaseous mixture of positive ions and electrons, is called plasma.
 Because of the extreme temperatures needed for fusion, no material can exist in the plasma state.

5.2 KINETIC THEORY AND PROPE OPERTIES OF MATTER

5.2.1 The Kinetic Theory of Matter
 The three states of matter in which substances are chemically the same but physically different are explained
by the kinetic theory of matter.
 The kinetic theory of matter gives an explanation of the nature of the motion and the heat energy.
 According to the kinetic theory of matter, every substance consists of a very large number of very small
particles called ions, atoms and molecules.
 The particles are in a state of continuous and random motion with all possible velocities.
 The motion of the particles increases with a rise in temperature.
 Generally, the kinetic theory of matter is based on the following three assumptions:
1) All matter is composed of particles which are in constant motion.
2) The particles possess kinetic energy and potential energy.
3) The difference between the three states of matter is due to their energy contents and the motion of the
particles.
5.2.2 Properties of Matter
The properties o f m a t t e r are explained in terms of the kinetic theory as follows:
Properties of Gases
The following general properties of gases can be summarized.
1. Gases have no definite shape and definite volume.
 This is because gases assume the th volume and shape of their containers.
2. Gases can be easily compressed.
 By applying pressure to the walls of a flexible container, gases can be compressed; the compression
results in a decrease in volume..
 This happens due to the large spaces between the particles of gases.
3. Gases have low densities compared red with liquids and solids.
 This is due to the fact that the particles of a gas are very far apart and the numb
number of molecules per unit
volume is very small.
 A small mass of a gas in a large volume results in a very low density.
4. Gases exert pressure in all directions.
directions
 Gases that are confined in a container exert pressure on the walls of their containe
container.
 This pressure is due to collisions between gas molecules and the walls of the containe
container.
5. Gases easily flow and diffuse through one another.
 A gas moves freely and randomly throughout in a given space.
Properties of Liquids
Liquids can be characterized by the following properties.
1. Liquids have a definite volume, but have no definite
defin shape.
 They assume the shapes of their eir container.
 Lack of a definite shape for liquid substances arises from its low intermolecular forces as compared to that
of solids.

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2. Liquids have higher densities than gases.

 Their density is a result of the close arrangement of liquid particles.
 Thus, the particles of liquids are closer than those of gases.
 This accounts for the higher densities of liquids as compared to gases.
3. Liquids are slightly compressible.
 With very little free spaces between their particles liquids resist an applied external force and thus are
compressed very slightly.
4. Liquids are fluids.
 A fluid is a substance that can easily flow. Most liquids naturally flow downhill because of gravity.
 Because liquids flow readily the molecules of a liquid can mix with each other.
 They flow much more slowly than gases.
Properties of Solids
1. Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume.
 This is due to the strong force of attraction that holds the particles of solids together.
2. Solids generally have higher densities than gases and liquids.
 The particles of solids are very close to each other.
 There is almost no empty space between the particles of solids.
 This closeness of particles makes solids to have more particles (mass) per unit volume, and hence solids
have high density.
3. Solids are extremely difficult to compress.
 This is because of the high interparticle forces, and a very short distance between the particles.
4. Solids are not fluids.
 That is they normally do not flow.
 This is due to the fact that solid particles are rigidly held in position by strong forces that cause the
restricted motion of their particles.
5.3 THE GASEOUS STATE
5.3.1 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
 The particles in an ideal gas are very widely spaced and they are in a constant random motion.
 The pressure of a gas is the result of continuous collisions between the particles and the walls of their
container.
Assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gases
1. The particles are in a state of constant, continuous, rapid, random motion and, therefore, possess kinetic energy.
o The motion is constantly interrupted by collisions with molecules or with the container.
o The pressure of a gas is the effect of these molecular impacts.
2. The volume of the particles is negligible compared to the total volume of the gas.
o Gases are composed of separate, tiny invisible particles called molecules.
o Since these molecules are so far apart, the total volume of the molecules is extremely small compared
with the total volume of the gas.
o Therefore, under ordinary conditions, the gas consists chiefly of empty space.
o This assumption explains why gases are so easily compressed and why they can mix so readily.
3. The attractive forces between the particles are negligible.
o There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between gas particles.
o You can think of an ideal gas molecule as behaving like small billiard balls.
o When they collide, they do not stick together but immediately bounce apart.
4. The average kinetic energy of gas particles depends on the temperature of the gas.
o At any particular moment, the molecules in a gas have different velocities.
o The mathematical formula for kinetic energy is
K.E. = ½ m ν2, where m is mass and ν is velocity of gas molecules.
o Because the molecules have different velocities, they have different kinetic energies.
o However, it is assumed that the average kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to
the absolute (Kelvin) temperature of the gas.
5.3.2 The Gas Laws
 The gas laws express mathematical relationships between the volume, temperature, pressure, and quantity
(amount) of a gas.

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Pressure
 Pessure is one of the measurable properties of gases.
 Defined as the force applied per unit area Pressure = Force
Area
 Thus, the pressure of a gas can be expressed in unit of atmosphere, Pascal, torr, millimetre of mercury (mmHg).
 The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa), and is defined as one Newton per square metre.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 76 cmHg = 760 torr = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa
Volume: Volume is the space taken up by a body.
 The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3).
 Volume is also expressed in cubic centimeter (cm3) and cubic decimeter (dm3).
 Other common units of volume are milliliter (mL) and liter (L).
1 cm3 = (1×10–22 m)3 = 1×10–6 m3
1 dm3 = (1×10–11 m)3 = 1×10–3 m3 = 1 L
 A litre is equivalent to one cubic decimeter: The relation is given as follows
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

Temperature: Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

 Three temperature scales are commonly used.
 These are °F (degree Fahrenheit), °C (degree Celsius) and K (Kelvin).
 In all gas calculations, we use the Kelvin scale of temperature.
 We use the following formulae for all necessary inter-conversions:
K = 0C + 273, 0C = 95 (0F – 32), 0F = 95 (0C) + 32
Molar Volume and Standard Conditions (STP)
 The conditions of a pressure of 1 atmosphere (atm) and a temperature of 0oC (273.14 K) are called
standard temperature and pressure
pressur or STP for gases.
 At STP the volume of one mole of any gas is equal to 22.4 litres.
 This volume is known as molar gas volume.
Quantity (amount) of gas:
 The quantity of a gas is expressed in mole (n).
 Mole is the quantity of gas in terms of number of particles.
 It is the number of atoms or molecules in 1 gram-atom or 1 gram-molecule of an element or a compound.
1. Boyle’s Law
 The relationship is b/n pressurere and volume at constant T & n
 The law states that, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at constant
temperature, T and amount of gas n.
 If the temperature and amount gas are constant, as pressure of a gas increases the volume decreases.
Mathematically Graphically
1
V (at constant T and n)
P
1
 V = k or PV = k (constant)
P
P1VI= P2V2 = P3V3= P4V4 = …… =k

P1VI= P2V2 Boyle’s Law

Examples

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1. A gas occupies 12.3 liters at a pressure of 40.0 mmHg. What is the volume when the pressure is increased to
60.0 mmHg?
Given Required Relationship Solution
( ))( . )
V1=12.3 L V2=? P1VI= P2V2 V2 = = = 8.2L
( )
P1=40.0mmHg V2 = 8.2L
P2=60.0mmHg
2. A gas occupies 11.2 liters at 0.860 atm. What is the pressure if the volume becomes 15.0 L?
Given Required Relationship Solution
( . )( . )
V1=11.2 L P2=? P1VI= P2V2 P2 = = = 0.64atm
( . )
P1=0.86atm P2 = 0.64atm
V2=15.0L
3. 500.0 mL of a gas is collected at 745.0 mmHg. What will the volume be at standard pressure?
Solution: P1VI= P2V2 , (745.0 mmHg) (500.0 mL) = (760.0 mmHg) (V2), V2 = 490.1 mL
4. If the pressure on a gas is decreased by one-half,
one half, how large will the volume change be?
Ans: It will double in size.
2. Charles’s Law
 The relationship b/n volume and temperature
tempe at constant pressure & n
 The e law states that, the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute (Kelvin)
temperature.
 If the pressure and mass of the gas are constant, as temperature of a gas increases the volume also
increases.
Mathematically Graphically
V  T ( at constant pressure and n)
V = kT  V  k , = = = =...
=.. = k
T
=  V1T2 = V2T1 Charle’s Law
Examples
1. 5.00 L of a gas is collected at 100 K and then allowed to expand to 50.0 L. What is the new tempe
temperature at
constant pressure?
Given Required Relationship Solution
( . )( )
V1=5.00 L T2=? V1T2 = V2T1 T2 = = = 1000L
( . )
T1=100K T2 = 1000K
V2=50.0L
2. A gas is collected and found to fill 4.73 L at 35.0°C. What will be its volume at standard temperature?
(Remember the standard temperature is 0 °C = 273K and in i all gas calculations, we use the Kelvin scale of
temperature)
Given Required Relationship Solution
( . )( )
V1=4.73 L V2=? V1T2 = V2T1 V2 = = = 4.2L
( )
T1=35.0°C = 308 K V2 = 4.2L
T2=273K
3. 8.00 L of a gas is collected at 60.0°C. What will be its volume upon cooling to 30.0°C?
(First
First convert °C to K, therefore, 60.0°C = 333 K and 25.0°C = 303 K. You MUST always convert to KELVIN!!) Ans:
( )( )
V2 = = 7.3L
( )
3. The Combined Gas Law:
 Boyle’s law and Charles’ law can be combined to give one expression called combined gas law.
 This law expresses the relationship b/n pressure, volume and temperature of a fixed amount (mass) of gas.
From Boyle’s law: V  1 V  T , V = kT  k = VP , k = P 1V 1  P 2 V 2 = P 3V 3  P 4 V 4 = …
P P P T T1 T2 T3 T4
From Charles’ law: V  T

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P 1V 1 P 2V 2
  P1V1T2 = P2V2T1 Combined gas law
T1 T2

Examples
1. The volume of a gas filled balloon is 30.0 L at 313 K and 153 kPa. What would the volume be at STP?
(Remember at STP, temperature=273K and pressure=1atm=101.325kPa)

Given Relationship Solution

( )( . )( )
V1=30.0 L V2 = P1V1T2 = P2V2T1 V2 = = = 39.5L
( . )( )
T1=313 K T2 = 273K V2 = 39.5L
P1=153kPa P2 =101.325kPa
2. A 300cm3 sample of a gas exerts a pressure of 60kPa at 270C. What pressure would it exert in a 200cm3
container at 200C?
Given Relationship Solution
( )( )( )
V1=300cm3 V2 =200cm3 P1V1T2 = P2V2T1 P2 = = = 87.9kPa
( )( )
T1=300 K T2 =293K
K P2 =87.9kPa
P1=60kPa P2 =?
4. Avogadro’s Law:
 The law states that equal volume of different gases, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure,
contain the same number of molecules.
 Thus according to the law the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules (moles) of the
gas at STP.
 Mathematically, V  n;; where V is the volume and n is the number of moles
Mathematically Graphically
V  n  V =k n 
V  = = =
 k
n
=  V1n2 = V2n1

V1n2 = V2n1 Avogadro’s Law

Examples
1. One mole of helium gas fills up an empty balloon to a volume of 1.5 litres. What would be the volume of the
balloon if an additional 2.5 moles of helium gas is added? (Assume that the temperature and the pressure are kept
constant)
Given Required Relationship Solution
( . )( . )
n1=1mol V2=? V1n2 = V2n1 V2 = = = 5.25L V2 = 5.25L
( )
V1=1.5L n2 =1mol +1.5L =3.5mol
2. A tyre containing 10 moles of air and occupying a volume of 40L loses half its volume due to a puncture.
Considering that the pressure and temperature remain constant, what would be the amount of air in the deflated
tyre?
Given Required Relationship Solution
( )( )
n1=10mol n2=? V1n2 = V2n1 n2 = = = 5mol
( )
V1=40L n2 = 5mol
V2= V1 = (40L) = 20L
3. 5.00 L of a gas is known to contain 0.965 mol. If the amount of gas is increased to1.80 mol, what new volume will result (at
an unchanged temperature and pressure)? Ans: 9.33 L

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Avogadro's number is known, NA = 6.02X1023

1mole of any gas = 22.4L= 6.02x1023particles at STP

Examples
1. 0.450 mole of Fe contains how many atoms?
Solution:
1mol of Fe = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Fe
0.45mol of Fe =?
0.450 mol x 6.022 x 1023 atoms/1mol =2.709x1023 atoms of Fe
2. 0.200 mole of H2O contains how many molecules?
Solution:
1mol of H2O = 6.02 x 1023 molecules H2O
0.200 mol of H2O =?
0.200 mol x 6.02 x 1023 molecules /1mol =1.204x1023 molecules of H2O

5. The Ideal Gas Equation

 An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws.
 Real gases only obey the ideal gas closely at high temperature and low pressure.
 Under these conditions, their particles are very far apart.
 The ideal gas law is the combination of Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s law.
Boyle’s law: V 1
p
Charles’ law: V T  V nT or V = R nT  PV = nRT
P P
Avogadro’s law: V  n

PV =nRT Ideal gas PV (1atm)(22.4 L)

=>, R =
=
nT (1mol )(273.15 K )
R = 0.082057 L . atm = 8.314L.kPa/K.mol = 8.314J/K.mol
K . mol
R is ideal or Universal gas constant
The four variables represent four different properties of a gas:
 Pressure (P), often measured in atmospheres (atm), kilopascals (kPa), or millimeters mercury/torr
(mm Hg, torr)
 Volume (V), given in liters
 Number of moles of gas (n)
 Temperature of the gas (T) measured in degrees Kelvin (K)
 R is the ideal gas constant, which takes on different forms depending on which units are in use.
The three most common formulations of R are given by:
Examples:
1. A 20 L box contains a fixed amount of gas at a temperature of 300 K and 101 kPa of pressure. How
many moles of gas are contained in the box?
( )( )
PV=nRT  n = = =0.8 mol
( . ⋅ )⋅
.

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2. An unknown gas with a mass of 205 g occupies a volume of 20.0 L at standard temperature and
pressure. What is the molar mass of the gas?
PV=nRT  PV= ( ) RT  M = where M molecular mass and n =
( ) . . . ( )
M= ( )( )
=230g/mol
6. Graham’s Law of diffusion
Q. How do you compare the rate of diffusion of molecules with different densities?
Graham’s law of diffusion states that at constant temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas
is, r, is inversely proportional to the square root of its density, d, or molar mass, M.
Mathematical it can be expressed as:
r  1 or r  1 Where, r = rate, M = molar mass d = density
d M
For two gases (Gas1 and Gas2), their rates of diffusion can be given as
r1  1 or r1  1 and r2  1 or r2  1
d1 M 1 d2 M 2
Rearranging these relationships gives the following expression.
r1 d 2 OR r1 M 2
 
r2 d1 r2 M 1
Examples
1. How much faster will hydrogen diffuse than a gas that has a molecular mass of 10?
Mass of H₂ gas M1= 2.0 and rate =r1
Mass of another gas M2 =10 and rate =r2
r1
 M 2 and r 1  10
r2 M 1 r2 2
(r1)² = (r2)² × M2 ÷ M1
(r1)² = 1² × 10 ÷ 2.0158
r1 = 2.2273
2. How much faster will hydrogen diffuse than chlorine?
Molecular masses of Cl2 =71(Mass 1 and Rate 1)
Molecular masses of H2 = 2 (Mass 2 and Rate -2)
Solve for Rate 2. We can rearrange Graham's Law:
(Rate 2)² = (Rate 1)² × Mass 1 ÷ Mass 2 then we plug in the numbers:
(Rate 2)² = 1² × 70.906 ÷ 2.0156
Rate 2 = 5.9309
3. Oxygen diffuses 1.4886 times faster than chlorine. If we know (from problem #2) that the molecular
mass of chlorine is 71, then what is the molecular mass of oxygen?
Mass 1 = (Rate 2)² × Mass 2 ÷ (Rate 1)²
Mass 1 = 1² × 71 ÷ 1.4886²
Mass 1 = 31.998 ≈ 32
5.4 The liquid state
Read more on…
5.5 The solid state

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