AHS 2408 SOIL SURVEY FOR LAND EVALUATION AND LAND USE

PLANNING

SOIL SURVEY

Soil survey, or soil mapping, is the process of classifying soil types and other soil
properties in a given area and geo-encoding such information. It applies the principles
of soil science, and draws heavily from geomorphology, theories of soil formation,
physical geography, and analysis of vegetation and land use patterns. Primary data for
the soil survey are acquired by field sampling and by remote sensing. Remote sensing
principally uses aerial photography but other digital techniques are steadily gaining in
popularity. In the past, a soil scientist would take hard-copies of aerial photography,
topo-sheets, and mapping keys into the field with them. Today, a growing number of
soil scientists bring a tablet computer and GPS into the field with them. The tablet
may be loaded with digital aerial photos, topography, soil geo-data-bases, mapping
keys, and more. The information in a soil survey can be used by the public as well as
the scientific community. For example, farmers and ranchers can use it to help
determine whether a particular soil type is suited for crops or livestock and what type
of soil management might be required. An architect or engineer might use the
engineering properties of a soil to determine whether or not it was suitable for a
certain type of construction. A homeowner may even use the information for
maintaining or constructing their garden, yard, or home.

Objectives
Since the initiation of surveys in 1899 the principal objectives were to
predict whether new crops could be grown on soils where they were never grown
before and to learn enough about certain soils to predict how they would respond
when irrigated with a known quality and quantity of irrigation water.These objectives
have been refined and expanded to include a rational means of transferring
technology from one soil to another, interpretations for predicting land use for every
soil mapped and to serve as a scientific base for taxation and zoning laws. In a broad
sense the objective of soil survey includes expanding knowledge and understanding of
different types of soils in relation to their genesis, development and classification.

Soil survey and mapping help in:

(i)The transfer of technology under different soil conditions and management
practices.

(ii) Providing information needed for developing optimum land use plans and for
bringing new areas under agricultural uses.

(iii) Delineating the problematic soils, such as saline-sodic, waterlogged, eroded and
waste lands and in suggesting soil and water conservation measures.

(iv) Land settlement, rehabilitation, tax appraisal, locating air-ports and other
engineering structures etc. and in public sanitation works.

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(v) Demarcating disease infested and nutrient deficient areas which may indirectly
help in controlling diseases and correction of particular nutrient deficiency.

The primary data for the soil survey are acquired by field sampling and by remote
sensing. Remote sensing principally uses aerial photography but other digital
techniques are steadily gaining in popularity. In the past, a soil scientist would take
hard-copies of aerial photography, topo-sheets, and mapping keys into the field with
them. Today, a growing number of soil scientists bring a tablet computer and GPS
into the field with them. The tablet may be loaded with digital aerial photos,
topography, soil geo-data-bases, mapping keys, and more.

Uses of Soil Survey:

The information in a soil survey report can be used by the public as well as the
scientific community. For example, farmers and ranchers can use it to help determine
whether a particular soil type is suited for crops or livestock and what type of soil
management might be required. An architect or engineer might use the engineering
properties of a soil to determine whether or not it was suitable for a certain type of
construction. A home owner may use the information for maintaining or constructing
their garden, yard, or home.

The soil survey reports give a comprehensive description of the the published results.
In today’s technology the results are published to the websites and can be freely
accessed by the public. By making the data and information available online, it allows
for the rapid flow of the latest soil information to the user. In the past it could take
years to publish a paper on soil survey and sometime making the published
information almost obsolete.

Soil survey bulletins and maps are useful as a basis for other scientific work. Land
evaluation and appraisal, statistical studies and sociological investigations are other
interests served. Nutrient index coupled with soil survey may be used for assessing
fertilizers requirement and potential productivity of an area.

The extension specialists and agricultural agents find the survey maps and bulletin a
guide in making suggestions and recommendations. Predictions can be made of
hydrologic changes in relation to modification in land-use patterns. Prospective
roadbeds can be selected from soil survey maps. Estimates of water runoff and
infiltration can be made on the basis of soil characteristics enumerated in soil survey
bulletins.

Soil surveys commonly identify the more important soil characteristics that determine
the limitations and qualities of the soil. These interpretations are designed to warn of
possible soil related hazards in an area. Knowledge of soil landscapes, soil formation,
and the various soil properties and function has expanded with a classification system
oriented to the interpretations of the soil survey. Various divisions and subdivisions of
the basic system of classification called soil taxonomy provide a basis for application
of the information to engineering and agricultural uses of the soil. Information about
soil properties provides a basis for assessing risks and hazards when making land use
decisions. Additionally, during the soil inventory process, we learn the relationship of

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various landscapes features to soil geography. Identifying and mapping soil landscape
relationships strengthen soil interpretations associated with hydrology and landscape
stability.

Soil Survey Components

A typical information in a soil survey report includes:

i. A brief overview of the geology of the area.

ii. A brief overview of the geography of the area.
iii. A general soil map with a brief description of each of the major soil types found
in the region along with their characteristics.
iv. Detailed aerial photographs with specific soil types outlined and indexed.
v. Photographs of some of the typical soils found in the area.
vi. Tables containing general information about the various soils such as total area,
comparisons of production of crops and common range plants. They also include
extensive interpretations for land use planning such as limitations for dwellings
with and without basements, shallow excavations, commercial buildings,
suitability for development, construction, and water management.
vii. Tables containing specific physical, chemical, and engineering properties such as
soil depth, soil texture, particle size and distribution, plasticity, permeability,
available water holding capacity, shrink-swell potential, corrosion properties, and
erodibility.

Types of Soil Survey:

Depending upon the objective, method, type of base map available and the intensity
of observations, four types of soil survey are recognised as follows:

(i) Exploratory Soil Survey: This is done on a very small scale (1:1,000,000) and
would cover the whole country. The soil map of the world is done even smaller scale
(1:5,000,000). This kind of survey has a low survey intensity level in terms of
sampling and field observations and is designed to offer information for broad
regional planning and soil capability mapping .

(ii) Reconnaissance soil survey:

(iii) Detailed soil survey

(iv) Detailed-reconnaissance soil survey

(v) Semi-detailed soil survey.

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(ii) Reconnaissance Soil Survey: This type of soil survey is undertaken to prepare
resource inventory of large areas. It identifies broadly the kinds of soils and their
extent of distribution. It enables to assess broad potentialities of soils and recognition
of areas of promise that are suitable for intensive and modern agriculture and those
requiring priority for amelioration.

In these surveys the soil boundaries are not totally traversed, but drawn partly by
extrapolation. The scale of mapping can be 1: 100,000, using topographical maps of
the survey of India as base material or aerial photographs of similar scale wherever
available. Reconnaissance soil surveys give information for detailed soil surveys and
broad land use planning for agricultural development.

(iii) Detailed-Reconnaissance Soil Survey:

It is a combination of reconnaissance and detailed soil surveys and is undertaken for

understanding distribution of basic soil classes of series and their phases. This can be
done at a scale of 1:50,000

(iv) Semi-Detailed Soil Survey:

This kind of soil survey comprises very detailed study of some selected strips cutting
across many aerial-photo-interpretation (API) units for developing correlation
between API units and soils. This type of soil survey provides adequate information
about various kinds of soils, including problematic soils. This survey can be done at a
scale of 1:25,000

(i) Detailed Soil Survey:

In detailed soil survey boundaries of soil units are delineated from observations by
actual traverses throughout the course of the boundary. Soils are examined in detail
and the close intervals in an area to detect differences that can be significant in their
use and management. The survey can be done at a scale of 1:10,000 - 1:5000.

Detailed soil surveys are conducted to furnish information required for a proper
assessment of soil properties, terrain features, erosional aspects and other related
factors that can help in working out the use capability and the management practices
for soil conservation and better production of crops and maintenance of soil fertility.

Cadastral maps (1: 8,000 or 1: 4,000 scale) or aerial photographs (1: 15,000 scale) are
generally used as base material for preparing soil maps for detailed soil surveys. The
mapping units on a detailed soil map show soil series, types and phases. Detailed soil
surveys are laborious, time consuming and much expensive. Detailed soil survey is of
two types, i.e. low and high intensity survey.

Soil Mapping Unit:

The distribution of different soil series on the landscape is often intricate and
necessitates some simplification for mapping. This is achieved by means of a
mapping unit, which is the smallest area of a map that can be delineated by a single
boundary at the scale used.

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In large scale maps, simple mapping units (narrowly defined soil series) are
delineated to attain a purity of 80 per cent or more within that unit. But as the map
scale decreases (from 1: 25,000 to 1: 50,000. or 1: 100,000), complex mapping units
are used.

Techniques used in Soil Survey:

There are usually three techniques as follows:

(i) General-Purpose API Survey:

Used for low-intensity surveys in which mapped boundaries (soils or land resources)
are largely or entirely inferred from Air Photo Interpretation (API) with a free survey
at low intensities of field observations to characterise physiographic units.

(ii) General-purpose free survey:

For medium-intensity surveys using API, but also with a relatively high intensity of
field observations.

(iii) Special Purpose Grid Survey:

In this method, individual soil properties are recorded on a grid pattern and may be
mapped parametrically. Observation points may commonly be located on an
elongated grid sited to cross the land.

Such systems, with observations along each line spaced more closely than the transets
themselves is particularly suited to land with readily identifiable soil catenae, or
where dense vegetation makes trace cutting difficult.

However, where soil variation is more random as, for example, in recent alluvial
sediments, a regular grid becomes more efficient. Grid surveys may also be used
where there is too little surface evidence and/or too few landmarks to allow free
survey of representative areas.

Sequence of Survey Operations:

i. Initial Reconnaissance:

It includes preliminary identification of major soil-landform- vegetation relationships,

and the study of all relevant existing data.

ii. Main Survey:

To establish distribution of soil and land units. Must be flexible to accommodate

changes in definitions based on additional information produced during survey;
preliminary classification and mapping to proceed concurrently.

iii. Sampling:

To sample soils of major mapped areas for characterisation.

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iv. Consolidation:

‘Filling in’ in areas of complex soils or difficult boundaries; testing of mapped areas,
revisions of API; incorporation of soil analytical results; final classification.

v. Reporting:

Production of final report and accompanying maps and diagrams.

Data Recording:

Landform characteristics, soil drainage, profile permeability and crop rooting often
receive only a cursory appraisal because they are less easy to quantify than soil colour,
depth or texture. Nevertheless, the former characteristics are always of equal, and
often of greater importance from the point of view of agricultural development, and
must therefore by carefully considered and recorded at each inspection site.

Soil Sampling:

With the present accuracy and reproducibility of physical and chemical analysis data,
the weakest link in the whole soil analytical chain is the sampling procedure.

Whereas most reputable laboratories would regard duplicate variation of greater than
10 per cent as unacceptable in most of their chemical analysis it would not be unusual
to encounter differences in specific chemical characteristics of more than twice this
magnitude between horizons taken from two profiles of the same soil type in the same
field.

Moreover, this variation need not be restricted to the immediate topsoil; subsoil clay
contents from similar horizons in adjacent profiles of, say, 17 and 22%, or
exchangeable sodium values of 4 and 6 g kg-1, would not be uncommon, even though
differences of 29 and 50% respectively are involved.

Therefore, when analyses are being performed in order to assesses the feasibility of a
project or to assist in the implementation of agriculture development, the surveyor
must take great care to ensure that the samples collected are as fully representative as
possible of the defined soil types and that any interpretation of the results takes into
account the constraints imposed by the sampling procedure.

Judgment and Random Sampling:

Judgment samples are those selected by the surveyor on the basis of field or API
studies as being representative of the soils in a particular area, or a particular type.
Random samples are collected in a statistically random manner and, in general, the
fewer the number of samples actually collected, the greater the possible
representational errors.

With judgment sampling, the possible errors also decrease with sample numbers, but
they do so at a slower rate with random sampling. At some point, therefore, random
samples become more statistically representative than judgment samples from ‘typical’
sites.

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Depth and Intensity of Sampling:

Depending on the soils and crops involved; two possible systems might be as follows
(depths in cm):

(a) 0-15, 15-30, 30-60, 60-90, 90-120

(b) 0-10, 40-50, 90-100, 140-150

Deep borings (of about 3 to 5 m) are often required to characterise substrata

particularly with reference to permeability and salinity, and for groundwater sampling.

Composite Samples:

The collection of composite samples from all soil profile horizons should be a
standard objective where fertility, rather than pedogenetic, characteristics are being
examined. Since the topsoil is generally that part of the profile most subject to
variation over short distances, it is recommended that composite samples be obtained
from this source as a matter of routine.

Care should be taken, however, to avoid collecting sub samples from locations having
a different history or land use or recent fertilizer application.

Correlatory Samples:

The remarks made above refer specifically to those samples collected for detailed
laboratory analysis. In addition to these, large numbers of correlatory samples may be
collected, on which only a very limited number of tests are made such as pH and
electrical conductivity.

These tests are usually carried out on site or in a field laboratory. Undisturbed
samples are usually taken sometimes for soil physical tests viz. pF and bulk density.

Samples for Namatode Analysis:

Whenever coarse-textured soils are being surveyed, consideration should be given to

the desirability of sampling for nematode analysis. This is particularly the case where
the proposed agricultural development involves high-value crops susceptible to
nematode attack, such as sugarcane, sugar beet, tobacco, citrus, bananas, tomatoes
and onions.

The sampling procedure differs from that normally used in that the soil must be
collected in a moist (but not wet) condition, and must reach the test laboratory not
more than three days after sampling.

Sample preparation, recording and dispatch:

The following points should be borne in mind when sending samples for analysis:

i. If possible, the samples should be air dried before being sent to the laboratory.

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ii. Each sample should be labelled twice; once with a tie on label and once with a
label inside the sample bag.

iii. Labels should be short and simple, since soil laboratories occasionally make
mistakes in transcribing numbers. The project name should be clearly marked on each
label.

iv. The laboratory should be requested to keep any unused samples, carefully labelled,
until about six months after completion of the project in case of any queries.

v. About 1 kg of air-dried soil is sufficient for complete analysis; for a restricted range
of chemical analyses only 150 g may be needed.

Field Laboratories:

On many surveys, particularly at the semi-detailed and development level, it is

advantageous to set up a field laboratory in regions having salinity hazards, in order to
carry out routine tests whilst the work is in progress. Normally the tests are restricted
to EC, pH, bulk density and field capacity. The amount of apparatus will clearly
depend on the size of the project and the number of samples to be tested.

Air photo interpretation and remote sensing:

Remote sensing techniques are divided on a technical basis into the use of
photographic and non-photographic sensors, and into imagery taken from aircraft and
from satellites. From a viewpoint of utility in soil survey a more pragmatic division is
as follows.

(i) Air photograph interpretation (API), using photographs taken from aircraft (both
black and white and true colour).

(ii) Other remote sensing techniques, comprising the use of other types of sensors
from aircraft together with satellite imagery.

Air Photo Interpretation:

Recent air photographs are a better guide to roads and tracks than are maps. Secondly,
the position of a soil observation site can be located on a photograph e.g. by reference
to a group of huts, clump of vegetation or a single large tree, in a way that it is
impossible with even the best of maps.

Thus, besides their use for interpretation, photographs are of considerable value in
planning and following traverse routes, and locating and subsequently plotting soil
observation.

The method used in photo interpretation for soil survey is similar irrespective of scale.
Pre-field work of interpretation is the main operation. The first stage is to gain an
appreciation of the primary land units, e.g. hill masses, plans, alluvial areas, from
non-stereoscopic viewing of the survey area as a whole.

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This can be done from a print lay-down or photo-mosaic, the latter having the
advantage of eliminating boundaries between photographs although not differences in
tone. Satellite imagery, where available, is superior for this purpose. The next stage
consists of detailed delineation of the primary units by stereoscopic examination of
successive photo-pairs.

This is followed by subdivision into secondary units, e.g. level crest areas, pediments,
valley floors. At all stages the recognition and delineation of mapping units is largely
on the basis of landform differences, and to a subsidiary extent on vegetation; direct
interpretation of soils is neither necessary nor possible.

It is also not necessary to be able to interpret all the phenomena employed in map unit
differentiation; and photographic difference of tone, texture or pattern can be
employed. It is best to follow the rule of subdividing areas wherever any consistent
difference can be detected; the additional time taken is small, and boundaries which
prove superfluous can be removed subsequently.

The mapping units distinguished in pre-fieldwork interpretation will not correspond

exactly to those of the final soil map, and may be called API mapping units. An
interim map legend is drawn up, giving for each unit the landforms, vegetation and
land use, and the photo-diagnostic features by which it has been identified.

Post-field work interpretation needs considerably less time. A high proportion of the
boundaries between API mapping units survive, notably boundaries of hill areas and
poorly- drained valley floors.

It is at this stage that the relations between API mapping unit and soil types,
investigated during field work, are finally collated, with the following possible
results:

(i) One API mapping unit corresponds with one soil type;

(ii) Two or more API mapping units possess the same soil type;

(iii) One API mapping unit contains two or more soil types.

Interpretation of Soil Survey and Soil Survey Report:

The most important and specific objective of soil survey is to interpret the soils based
on their properties and characteristics for various uses. Interpretation of soil survey is
aimed at predicting the use potential of a soil for a specific purpose, such as,
productivity of soils, capability of soils for raising specific kinds of crops, waste
recycling, water supply, urban and industrial structures and many more specialized
activities.

Interpretation of soils for land capability classification is based on inherent soil

characteristics, external land features, erosion hazards and environmental factors that
limit the use of the land.

The soil survey report and soil map are the end-product of any survey. It contains
general description of the area (location, extent, physiography and relief, rivers,
drainage, geology, climate, vegetation), socio-economic condition, agriculture and

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present land use, detailed description of soils (morphology, characteristics) land
capability classification and other general problems of the area.

The soil survey reports have been found to be extensively used especially in designing
drainage and irrigation networks, planning the ameliorative measures for salt affected
and eroded areas, for sanctioning loans etc. This report is also used for developing
rational land use planning for growing crops.

Importance of Soil Survey:

Soil surveys are land inventories composed of soil maps, soil descriptions, some
physical and chemical analyses, engineering properties and limitations for major land
uses. The utilization of soils in a better way has also been reported possible through
soil survey.

Soil surveys are necessary to plan, develop and apply effectively drainage and
irrigation practices on farm lands, conduct agricultural research on mapped soils if the
research findings are to be transferred to other areas having comparable soil site
characteristics.

Soil surveys provide information needed for land use management and land use
planning.
Soil surveys are meant to:
i. Investigate the geographical distribution of soils that occur in a given area.
ii. Determine the most important characteristics of the soils.
iii. Delineate map units and describe them in a logical legend in terms of dominant,
associated and inclusion soil units, including classification of soils.
iv. Ultimately lead to evaluation of the quality of the different mapunits for specific
types of land use.

Examples of major soils in Kenya

Andosols (young volcanic soils)

Andosols occur in areas with steep slopes and high-rainfall. By rainfall over 1000 mm
per year, andosols are exposed to excessive leaching.
Andosols are porous, have a high water-storage capacity and a low bulk density. They
are also acidic (low pH) due to the high leaching of soluble bases and to the high
levels of Aluminum (Al). These conditions favour P-fixation, making it no longer
available to the plants.
To improve agricultural production liming and the use of fertilizers is necessary.
Andosols are high susceptible to erosion as they mostly occur on steep slopes. In
these areas, they are mainly used for tea, pyrethrum, temperate crops and dairy
farming.
Occurrence -Kijabe/Longonot area

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Nitisols
Nitisols occur in highlands and on volcanic steep slopes, for example in the central
highlands of Kenya, some areas of the Ethiopian highlands and around Mts. Kenya
and Kilimanjaro. They are developed from volcanic rocks and have better chemical
and physical properties than other tropical soils: they have a good moisture-storage
capacity and aeration; the organic matter content content, the cation exchange
capacity and the percentage base saturation range from low to high. Most nitisols are
acidic (pH < 5.5) due to the leaching of soluble bases.
Nitisols have often a high clay content (more than 35%). They are the best
agricultural soils found in the region. They are intensely used for plantation crops and
food production (e.g. banana, tea and coffee).
For optimal agricultural production, nitosols need the use of manure and inorganic
fertilizers. To protect these soils from erosion, soil conservations measures are
essential.
Occurence - Muguga and many parts of Central region

Acrisols, Alisols, Lixisols and Luvisols

These kind of soils occur in the coffee zones in the sub-humid areas, on undulationg
to hilly topography. They show an increase of clay content in the sub-soil (B-Horizon).
The sub-soil is often not very porous, impeding root spreading. They have a relatively
low water-storage capacity, compared with nitisols. Acrisols and Alisols in wet areas
have a low pH (acid), Al and Mn toxicities and low levels of nutrients and nutrient
reserves.
These soils have poor structure and need erosion-control measures. Organic and
inorganic fertilizers are needed to improve crop production. The soils respond well to
fertilizers (especially N, P and K) and to the use of soil organic matter.

Luvisols: Soils with strong accumulation of clay in the B-horizon and not dark in
color. Under the revised legend these soils have clays with high cation exchange
capacity.

Alisols:
A new soil class of formerly Acrisols with clays with high cation exchange capacity.
Acrisols:
Acidic soils with a layer of clay accumulation. Under the modified legend this class
consists only of clays with low cation exchange capacity.

Lixisols: New soil class, formerly Luvisols, with clays with low cation exchange
capacity.

Occurrence - Thika
Ferralsols
Ferralsols occur on gently undulating to undulating topography. They are very old,
highly weathered and leached soils, and therefore with a poor fertility, which is
restricted to the top soil, as the subsoil has a low cation exchange capacity.
Phosphorous (P) and Nitrogen (N) are always deficient. Ferralsols are rich in

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Aluminium (Al) and Iron (Fe). The nutrient reserves are easily disturbed by
agricultural practices.Important management practices include the use of fertilizers
(e.g. rock phosphate) and the maintainance of soil organic matter by using green
manures, farmyard manures and mulching. Ferralsols have also good physical
properties including an excellent capacity to hold moisture.
Ferralsols are used to grow several annual and perennial crops, being particularly
suited to tree crops such as oil palm, rubber and coffee.
Main occurrence - Tsavo
Planosols and Vertisols
Planosols and Vertisols occur on very gently undulating to flat topography, mostly in
rice growing areas e.g. Mwea in Krinyaga District and Kano plains in Nyanza
Province. They are found in semi-arid and sub-humid environments. Due to the high
clay content in the subsoil (higher than in the top-soil), is this layer in the B-horizon
impermeable resulting in a very slow vertical and horizontal poor drainage and also in
an extremely poor workability of the soils. These soils are dark coloured and strongly
cracking.
Main area of occurrence - Nyandarua

Vertisols

Vertisols are soils with a high content of clay minerals that shrink and swell as they
change water content. The clay minerals adsorb water and increase in volume (swell)
when wet and then shrink as they dry, forming large, deep cracks. Surface materials
fall into these cracks and are incorporated into the lower horizons when the soil
becomes wet again. As this process is repeated, the soil experiences a mixing of
surface materials into the subsoil that promotes a more uniform soil profile.
Vertisols are usually very dark in color, with widely variable organic matter content
(1 – 6%). They typically form in Ca and Mg rich materials such as limestone, basalt,
or in areas of topographic depressions that collect these elements leached from
uplands. Vertisols are most commonly formed in warm, subhumid or semi-arid
climates, where the natural vegetation is predominantly grass, savanna, open forest.

The pH for most commonly grown crops ranges from 5.5 – 7.0 (Landon, 1984).The
exchangeable acidity (0.1-0.2) is below 0.8 and total nitrogen (0.10-0.16%) are
adequate and low respectively while organic carbon (0.10-0.16%) and phosphorus
(22-35 ppm) of these soils are low to moderate and low to adequate respectively.
Potassium is low and all the other nutrients (Ca and all micronutrients) in the farm are
adequate except Zinc in soil mapping unit VAC2. Although the soils of the farm are
acidic, there is no need of liming since exchangeable acidity is far below 0.8 and
calcium and magnesium are adequate. 6.3 Conditions favouring soil fertility
According to Landon (1984) some of the conditions favouring high soil fertility are: 1.
Depth to limiting horizon : > 150cm 2. Texture: loam, sandy clay loam, sandy clay,
clay (if structure and consistence are favourable) 3. Structure and consistence :
moderate or strong, fine or medium structure; friable consistence 4. Moisture
conditions : Free drainage with good moisture retention 5. Plant nutrients: high levels
6. Cations-exchange capacity: medium to high 7. Soil reaction: generally pH 5.0-8.0,
but varies with crops 8. Organic matter: adequate levels The soil properties

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considered not favouring high soil fertility in Thai Model Village Farm are: drainage
(moderate and imperfect drainage), structure and moist consistence (massive and
prismatic structures and firm consistence in the sub-soil), plant nutrients (low levels
of N, P and K in most cases), pH (low for some crops) and organic matter (low to
moderate).

LAND SUITABILITY FOR SOME COMMONLY GROWN CROPS

Land evaluation for suitability classification for growing of maize, beans, sunflower,
passion fruits, water melon, capsicum, mangoes citrus, avocado and pawpaw.The
evaluation criterion follows closely the framework of land evaluation (FAO, 1976)
but with minor modification to allow for the different local conditions. The
classification is qualitative in nature and is based primarily on the physical and
chemical limitations of the soils.
There are five land suitability classes with the following descriptions:
Class S1: Highly suitable Land suitable for sustained high yields for most climatically
adapted crops and with minimum costs of development associated with the land.

Class S2: Moderately suitable Land of moderate productivity or requiring moderate

costs of development and management due to slight to moderate limitations in land
characteristics.

Class S3: Marginally suitable Land of restricted productivity for most crops or land
requiring relatively high costs for development and management because of moderate
to severe limitations in land characteristics.

Class NS1: Provisionally unsuitable Land which is considered unsuitable (or

unsustainable) for crops, pending further investigations.
Class NS2: Unsuitable Land that is unsuitable for crops due to severe limitations in
soils, topography or drainage for a particular project.

SOILS OF WESTERN ENYA

Acidification is a natural phenomenon and acid soils cover large tracts of

land worldwide. Important processes contributing to acidification include:
leaching of cations from the soil by excess rainwater; loss of cations when
plant material is removed; and formation of organic acids aided by
CO2 from root respiration and microbial respiration. Because it is an
ongoing process, old soils like the ones found in Western Kenya are
greatly affected.
If no precautions are taken, farming accelerates acidification. Harvesting
of crop and removal of crop residues, application of N and to some extent
P fertilizers, and tillage of the soil all contribute to acidification. Clay
particles and soil organic matter (SOM) provides a buffer that is important
in slowing down acidification. This is measured by the cation exchange
capacity (CEC) of the soil. In highly weathered soils like the ones in the
target area, SOM accounts for most of the CEC value and managing SOM
is therefore an important part of mitigating acidity.

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Impacts of Acidification
Soil acidity affects plants in two principal ways: by increasing
the presence of toxic substances like aluminum (Al),
manganese (Mn) and hydrogen ions (H+), and by reducing the
availability of important plant nutrients like phosphorus (P),
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and in most cases, toxic levels
of aluminum is the main problem. At low pH, much of the CEC
is occupied by Al and when the saturation reaches 60%,
Al3+ increases to toxic levels in the soil solution. This toxicity
results in shallow roots with swollen tips, preventing water and
nutrients from deeper soil layers to be accessed. Also, legumes
show poor nodulation. These changes are clearly visible in
many crops at pH below 5. In Western Kenya, soil pH ranges
from 6.5 to less than 4.5, meaning it is slightly to extremely
acid.
Molybdenum (Mo).
The low availability of plant nutrients reduces the yield and
increases susceptibility to pests and disease.
Responding to Acid Soils in Agriculture
Acidification has been recognized as a problem in agricultural
science for over a century and many solutions have been
tested. In the following sections, responses to soil acidification
that are potentially feasible for farmers in Western Kenya are
outlined.
Adapting to Acidification
As soils acidify naturally, the plant communities change to
more acid-tolerant species. Farmers can follow the same
strategy and switch to crops or cultivars with a higher tolerance
to acidity. Tolerant crops include cassava (Manihot
esculenta Crantz), cow pea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp),
groundnut (Arachis hypogea), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.
Mill sp.), potato (Solanum tuberosum), rice (Oryza sativa L.),
and rye (Secale cereale L.).
Tolerance to acidic soils is an objective being pursued in
breeding programs for all major crops. In Kenya, for example,
KARI and Moi University together with ICRISAT and
CIMMYT are screening maize and sorghum accessions for Al
tolerance.
Since acid-tolerant crops and cultivars still suffer from the
unbalanced nutrient supply caused by the acidity, it is only part
of a solution. However, the main merit of this response is that is
requires no changes to current practices or farm supply chains.
Slowing Acidification
There are several options for slowing acidification by making
minor or moderate changes to current farming practices.
Nitrogen fertilizers differ in their impact on acidification. They
can be divided into three groups according to their effect on soil
acidification
1. Strong acidification effect: Ammonium sulphate (AS)
and sulphur-coated urea (SCU)

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 2. Moderate acidification effect: organic-coated urea
(OSM),
3. Mimimal effect: nitrochalk (NC)

Cheap N fertilizers are often the most acidifying types.

However, the liming required to neutralize them should always
be considered as part of the cost.
The application rate of N fertilizer can be reduced by applying
it directly in the planting hole instead of broadcasting, as it
reduces leaching and volatilization. It is also important not to
over-fertilize.
Spot application of fertilizer to individual plants requires more
labor than broadcasting.
Nitrogen-fixing crops, cover crops, intercrops or fallows can
substitute part of the N fertilizer application. Crotalaria
grahamiana has been used successfully as a cover crop in the
target area. However, its relatively wide adoption appears to
have resulted in problems with caterpillars.
Many agroforestry species will penetrate to much deeper soil
levels than crops even on acid soils. Thus they can function as
nutrient pumps, bringing nutrients that are otherwise
inaccessible to the surface through litter and prunings. In the
target area, the exotic Calliandra calothyrsus and the
indigenous Sesbania sesban have been successful agroforestry
species. Since Sesbania is host to a root nematode that attacks
beans precautions must be taken.
Agroforestry also increases SOM which has a positive effect on
acidity. Incorporating agricultural waste in the soil contributes
to SOM buildup too. If farmers need the waste for fodder or
fuel, manure and ash should be returned to the soil.
In most circumstances, reduced tillage (e.g. zero or minimum
tillage) slows down acidification and builds up SOM. Zero
tillage has become widely adopted throughout the world over
the last decades. However, the success has been highest in high-
input agriculture and less so with poor smallholders like the
ones in Western Kenya. A major reason is that high input
agriculture relies on herbicides for weed control whereas
smallholders generally rely on manual weeding. Since the
weeding effect of plowing is absent, this can increase the labor
burden. It is often women who end up carrying most of the
extra burden.
Biochar has the potential to increase SOM beyond any of the
methods mentioned so far. The soil processes related to biochar
are relatively well understood after intense research over the
last decade but implementation is still experimental. One
approach that is being pursued in several countries, including
Kenya, is the use of improved cookstoves that produce biochar
as a by-product.
Biochar stoves can be constructed to run on agricultural waste
like maize cobs, thus cutting the consumption of purchased fuel.

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In the short term, SOM on the farm may go down when crop
waste is used for fuel; but due to the longevity of biochar, SOM
will eventually surpass what would have been achieved by
incorporating waste directly in the soil.
Recent designs like the Quad stoves stoves by Awamu Bomass
Energy in Uganda are delivered as a flat package of sheet metal
pieces that can be assembled locally. This can significantly cut
distribution costs.
Biochar will initially adsorb cations. Applying biochar to
depleted soils without any amendments can therefore reduce the
yield. Biochar can be “charged” by for instance mixing it with
compost or compost tea. Only non-toxic material should be
used for biochar production. In Western Kenya, one potential
feedstock for biochar production is water hyacinth from Lake
Victoria. The pollution level is relatively low in Lake Victoria,
but Winam Gulf is the most polluted part of the lake; as water
hyacinth is known for its ability to concentrate heavy metals,
precautions must be taken to test/monitor its use for biochar.
Reversing Acidification
To reverse acidification, amendments from outside the farm are
required. Wood ash has a liming effect that has long be utilised
in slash-and-burn agriculture. Potential sources of wood ash are
limited in the area. To achieve an effect similar to applying 1 kg
of lime, 8 kg of wood ash are required. This limits the distance
that it is feasible to transport wood ash for the sole purpose of
liming. However, if it has multiple purposes, this is a different
story. For instance, if the ash is obtained from fire briquettes
made from sawmill waste or water hyacinth, then wider
distribution can be viable.
Besides wood ash, chicken manure can be used to lime the soil.
It is twice as efficient as wood ash but few sources are available.
Agricultural lime is the standard remedy for acid soils
worldwide. Kenya is not endowed with a lot of mineral sources
of agricultural interest; however, one of them is luckily Koru
carbonatite, 55 km east of Kisumu, that is being mined
by Homa Lime Co. Ltd. Agricultural lime is sold in different
quality levels, bagged or in bulk. It is calcitic lime, i.e. it
contains only calcium. On the market in Western Kenya
dolomitic lime is available too but at a higher price. It contains
both calcium and magnesium.
Lack of awareness is another obstacle to liming: In Western
Kenya few farmers are aware of the problems with acid soils
and the options of using lime. Instead the poor performance of
crops is seen as a nutrient problem only and the response is
therefore to buy N fertilizer which will just add to the acidity
problems.
Many trials have shown the benefit of liming soils in Western
Kenya, but high costs of lime and transport are major
obstacles. AGRA recently negotiated bulk contracts with
agricultural suppliers and producers in an attempt to reduce the

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price of agricultural lime. Their effort resulted in 20.000
farmers in Western Keny receiving lime.
Lime increases crop yields, but without additional measures
SOM is likely to decrease, due to increased decomposition rates
occurring in less acid soils. This will again increase the amount
of fertilizer and lime required to maintain a good pH and
nutrient status, while increasing the susceptibility to drought
due to reduced water-holding capacity.
With current farming techniques it will be difficult to
incorporate lime into the soil deeper than 20 cm and subsoil
acidity will therefore remain an issue and continue to affect
rooting depth of crops.
From this review, it should be clear that there is not a single le
solution available. Instead, a mix of interventions must be
combined to deal with the acidity problem. Western Kenya is
lucky to be endowed with a few research stations and having
been targeted for a long time by agricultural NGOs: All feasible
solutions have been tested in the area – from superficial (e.g.
biochar) to thorough (lime and agroforestry).
This raises the question as to why the different options are not
more widespread. This is essential to understand. Some options
are technically efficient and economically viable, but farmers
lack information or capital, or there are cultural barriers. For
instance many farmers in Western Kenya are not aware of soil
acidification and inadvertantly look to “solutions” that
exacerbate the problem.
Since lime is the only option for reversing the severe
acidification that has taken place throughout Western Kenya, it
is essential that lime is offered as part of any sustainable
agricultural intervention.

Kenya Soils

Soil resources vary from sandy to clayey, shallow to very deep

and low to high fertility. However, most of them have serious
limitations such as salinity/ sodicity, acidity, fertility and
drainage problems. The major soils used in agriculture
are ferralsols, vertisols, acrisols, lixisols, luvisols and nitisols.

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