Approaches to

Qualitative Studies
&
Research
Methodology
There are four major types of research
approach in qualitative study:

1) phenomenology
2) ethnography
3) grounded theory
4) case study
 Phenomenology literally means the study of
phenomena. It is a way of describing something
that exists as part of the world in which we live.

Phenomena may be events, situations,

Phenomenolo experiences or concepts. We are surrounded by
many phenomena, which we are aware of but not

gy fully understand.

A phenomenological study might explore, for

example, the effect that back pain has on sufferers’
relationships with other people by describing the
strain or the effect on children of having a disabled
parent.
 Ethnography
Ethnography has a background in anthropology. The term means
“portrait of a people” and it is a methodology for descriptive
studies of cultures and peoples. The cultural parameter is that the
people under investigation have something in common. Examples
of parameters include:

• geographical - a particular region or country

• religious
• tribal
• shared experience

Ethnographic studies entail extensive fieldwork by the researcher.

Data collection techniques include both formal and informal
interviewing, often interviewing individuals on several occasions,
and participant observation. Because of this, ethnography is
extremely time consuming
• Analysis of data adopts an “emic”
approach. This means that the researcher
attempts to interpret data from the
perspective of the population under study.

• The results are expressed as though they

were being expressed by the subjects
themselves, often using local language and
terminology to describe phenomena.

• Ethnographic research can be problematic

when researchers are not sufficiently familiar
with the social mores of the people being
studied or with their language. Interpretation
from an “etic” perspective - an outsider
perspective - may be a misinterpretation
causing confusion.
 • The main feature is the development of new theory through
the collection and analysis of data about a phenomenon. It
goes beyond phenomenology because the explanations that
emerge are genuinely new knowledge and are used to develop
new theories about a phenomenon

Grounded • A key feature of grounded theory is the simultaneous

collection and analysis of data using a process known as

Theory
constant comparative analysis - data are transcribed and
examined for content immediately following data collection.

• Ideas which emerge from the analysis are included in data

collection when the researcher next enters the field. For this
reason, a researcher collecting data through semi structured
interviews may gradually develop an interview schedule in the
latter stages of a research project which looks very different to
the original schedule used in the first interview.
 Case study

• Like surveys, case study research is one of

those research approaches which can take a
qualitative or quantitative stance.

• Case study research is used to describe an

entity that forms a single unit such as a person, an
organisation or an institution. Some research
studies describe a series of cases.

• Case study research ranges in complexity. The

most simple is an illustrative description of a single
event or occurrence. More complex is the analysis
of a social situation over a period of time.
Multidiscipline
area includes
Psychology,
Sociology,
Business,
Medicine
Qualitative Research Methods
APPROACHES IN DATA ANALYSIS IN
QUALITATIVE DATA
1. Content analysis

focuses on the systematic classification of data using coding to identify the key categories issues within it.

Coding is where you segment a given dataset into chunks. Each chunk is then given a label or ‘code’ to
describe what it is about. You can use colour-coding or numbering to assign different chunks of data to
the same code, to enable you to group chunks of data together by their code at a later stage of analysis.

Content analysis can then be used to help you to sort through a vast amount of qualitative data and
reduce this down into a summary form through identifying and coding these pre-existing categories (and
if appropriate new
categories) in the data.

malas, gembira, tidak berminat, bersemangat, tiada masa, penat, kurang inspirasi, menarik

1 malas, tidak berminat, tiada masa, penat, kurang inspirasi

2 gembira, bersemangat, menarik
APPROACHES IN DATA ANALYSIS IN
QUALITATIVE DATA
2. Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis focuses on the search and generation of themes from the dataset. It is similar to
content as it uses coding and also aims to reduce data down into a summary form, but it differs slightly
through using coding to identify and apply themes to chunks of data.

Negatif malas, tidak berminat, tiada masa, penat, kurang inspirasi

Positif gembira, bersemangat, menarik

If you undertake thematic analysis, it can be helpful to follow a staged process, whereby you start by
familiarising yourself with the data by reading through the entire dataset in full without doing any coding.
In the next stage, re-read the data and identify the main features to generate initial codes within it.
APPROACHES IN DATA ANALYSIS IN
QUALITATIVE DATA
3. Textual Analysis

Textual analysis is a broad term for various research methods used to describe, interpret and understand
texts. All kinds of information can be gleaned from a text – from its literal meaning to the subtext,
symbolism, assumptions, and values it reveals.

The methods you use to analyze a text will vary according to the type of object and the purpose of your
analysis:

• Analysis of a story might focus on the imagery, narrative perspective and structure of the text.
• To analyze a film, not only the dialogue but also the cinematography and use of sound could be
relevant to the
analysis.
APPROACHES IN DATA ANALYSIS IN
QUALITATIVE DATA
4. Discourse analysis
focuses on analysing the language used while taking into account the social context in which the
communication occurred to reveal the socio-psychological characteristics of the person or people
involved.

Discourse analysis focuses on analysing the language used while taking into account the social context in
which the communication occurred to reveal the socio-psychological characteristics of the person or
people involved. This may include any previous communication related to the data being analysed, power
relationships and understanding of identity.

Elements of communication that may form a part of discourse analysis include:

• intonation and tone;
• gestures;
• patterns of speech
Methods of collecting
qualitative data
• Individual interviews

• Structured interviews consist of the interviewer

asking each respondent the same questions in the same
way

• Semi structured interviews involve a series of

questions based on the topic areas but allowing some
adjustments and addition when neccesary

• Unstructured interviews have very little structure at

all.
 Sometimes it is preferable to collect information from groups of people
rather than from a series of individuals in order to see the interactions
and getting multiple information from various members

Focus groups
• Characteristics of a focus group

• Recommended size of a group is of 6 – 10 people

• Several focus groups should be run in any research project
• members in each group should have something in common
 • It is a technique that can be used when data collected
through other means can be of limited value or is difficult to
Observation validate.

• Observing participants in those situations is more reliable:

it is possible to see how they actually behave.
 In covert research, the research In overt research, the research
It's important to note that
participants don't know who the participants are all aware of the
observational methods can be
researcher is, or that there's researcher's presence and their
covert or overt.
even a researcher there at all. role as an observer.

participant observation, the

non-participant observation,
researcher integrates themselves
the researcher studies their
into a group to study their way of Non-participant observation can
subjects from the sidelines - they
life, their culture, and how they be either structured or
don't participate or integrate
structure their community. This unstructured
themselves into the lives of the
technique is commonly used in
group they are studying.
ethnography
Techniques for collecting data through observation

• Written descriptions. The researcher can record observations of people, a situation or

an environment by making notes of what has been observed

• Video recording. This frees the observer from the task of making notes at the time and
allows events to be reviewed time after time

• Photographs and artefacts. Photographs are a good way of collecting observable data
of phenomena which can be captured in a single shot or series of shots

• Documentation. A wide range of written materials can produce qualitative information

Transcribing Qualitative Data

Transcribing is the procedure for producing a written

version of the interview. It is a full "script" of the
interview. Transcribing is a time-consuming process.
The estimated ratio of time required for transcribing
interviews is about 5:1. This means that it can take two
and a half hours or more to transcribe a thirty minutes
interview.
Good quality transcribing is not simply transferring words from the
tape to the page. When people are in conversation only a small
proportion of the message is communicated in the actual words used.

A larger proportion is transmitted in the way people speak. Tone and

inflection are good indicators of a whole range of feelings and
meanings. When transcribing, consideration should be given to how
these feelings and meanings can be communicated on paper by
using punctuation marks, and techniques such as upper-case
lettering, underlining and emboldening
 PROCESS FLOW
Quantitative Qualitative
Identify Topic Identify Topic
Read Literature Review Develop Research Question
Develop Hypothesis Interview
Choose Instrument Analyse
Conduct Survey/Experiment Interview
Test Hypothesis Analyse
Write Report Identify Pattern
Write Analysis
Read literature review