Chapter –II- Formulation of the Research problem (Lecture Note) 2023

CHAPTER-TWO
Formulation of the Research problem
Introduction:-
This is the beginning activity of the research process and is the most difficult phase. The problem must
be identified with adequate specificity. It is mostly at this point in many studies that hypotheses are
generated, variables identified and defined adequately so that necessary data can be identified in
preparation for data collection. A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes
susceptible to research. Like, a medical doctor, a researcher must examine carefully all the symptoms
concerning the problem before suggesting a solution. That is why quite often we all hear that a problem
clearly stated is a problem half solved. Formulating a research problem requires considerable
preliminary work, knowledge and a logical analysis of the problem, which may be of tremendous
challenges for inexperience researcher. Even for experienced researcher, identifying and defining new
areas of research requires considerable analysis and abstraction skills to transpose ideas about a
problem in to realistic and researchable questions. Formulating a research problem entails asking a
previously unanswered question for which an answer is sought. It also entails stating clearly the
research objectives and hypothesis; defining precisely all key terms and concepts; and describing at
the outset the research procedures to be applied.
2.1. What is research problem?
Broadly speaking, any questions that you want to be answered and assumption or assertions that you
want to challenge or investigate can become a research problem or a research topic for your study.
However, it is important to remember that not all questions can be transformed in to research
problems and some may prove to be extremely difficult to study. A research problem can be defined
based on two senses. These are:

 Conventional sense: a problem is a set of conditions that need discussion, a solution or

information.
 Technical sense: a research problem implies the possibility of empirical investigation i.e. data
collection and data analysis. It is not too broad proposition or a vague question. A good
research problem should be one that is socially and scientifically important to investigation.
Formulation of the problem means defining the problem precisely. In other words, a problem
well defined is half solved. Formulation of problem is often more essential than its solution
because when the problem is formulated, an appropriate technique can be applied to generate
alternative solutions.
2.1.1. Importance of a Research Problem
The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important step of the research process. It is
like the identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. In the absence of clear research
problem, a clear and economic plan is impossible. A research problem is like a “foundation of a
building”. The type and design of the building depends upon the foundation. If the foundation is well
designed and strong you can expect the building to be also. The research problem serves us the
foundation of a research study; if it is well formulate, you can expect a good study to follow. If one
wants to solve problem, one must generally know what the problem is. The way you formulate the
problem determines always every step that follows:
 The style of the study that can be used;
 The type of sampling strategy that can be employed;
 The research instruments that can be used; and

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Chapter –II- Formulation of the Research problem (Lecture Note) 2023

 The type of analysis that can be undertaken.

The formulation of a problem is like the input in to the study, and the output the quality of the
contents of the research report and the validity of the association or causation established, this
entirely depends upon it. Hence, the famous proverb in computer science, “garbage in, garbage out” is
equally applicable to a research problem.
2.1.2. Sources of research problem
A research problem may arise from the following sources:
1. Personal Experience of Practical Situation
One’s day to day experience and observation of the sounding real phenomena may suggest the need
for a research to provide solution to previously existing unresolved issue or to unravel or manage a
new situation. There are a lot of such issues in our surrounding environment, that needs solution
and/or that enhances our knowledge and/or help to develop new theories, if researched.
2. Previous Research and Related Literature
Reading research articles and journals, books, magazines and other research outputs and literature
bodies on the area of interest gives the researcher an insight in to various issues that could be studied.
From such readings, one may also identify research gaps which appear to justify additional research.
Moreover, deduction from existing theories may also suggest the need for a research to unravel or
manage a new situation.
3. Current Social and Political Issue
Contemporary debates, concern or movements may lead to a research problem. Changes are
inevitable in the social, economic, political, cultural etc. life of the society. Such changes might be
accompanied by new phenomena of life which might create problem to a society at least until they are
adopted. Hence, the need to know the impact or influence and the implication of such changes for the
life of different sections of a society could be an important research problem that justifies further
research endeavor in the area.
4. From Discussion With Peoples
People can make discussion with their friends, students, neighbors, workers of different
organizations, and with different members of the society of course on different socio – economic,
political and other issues related to their life. Listening at such discussion can give us an important
insight to many important research problems.
5. Personal Motivation
An individual researcher may develop an interest to know certain phenomena or events from
different perspectives and/or in detail.
6. Lack of Information
Policy Makers - in order to formulate policy in various issues; and
Decisions Makers - in order to make various decisions
Obviously need sufficient and relevant information for their respective purposes. However, there is no
sufficient and/or relevant information available at hand, then, this problem necessitates research
endeavor that could come up with necessary information before dealing with the purpose at hand.
2.1.3. Guidelines for the statement of the problem
A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the
problem addressed by a study. A good research problem should address an existing gap in
knowledge in the field and lead to further research. A statement of the problem is used in research
work as a claim that outlines the problem addressed by a study. A good research problem should
address an existing gap in knowledge in the field and lead to further research. To write a persuasive

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Chapter –II- Formulation of the Research problem (Lecture Note) 2023

problem statement, you need to describe;

(a) The ideal,
(b) The reality, and
(c) The consequences.
A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem addressed
by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the question: What is the problem that the
research will address?
What are the goals of a statement of the problem?
The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized problem (something that
bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem; one that can be resolved through
focused research and careful decision-making.
Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose of the research
project you will propose. Often, the statement of the problem will also serve as the basis for the
introductory section of your final proposal, directing your reader’s attention quickly to the issues that
your proposed project will address and providing the reader with a concise statement of the proposed
project itself.
A statement of problem need not be long and elaborate: one page is more than enough for a good
statement of problem.
What are the key characteristics of a statement of the problem?
A good research problem should have the following characteristics:
1. It should address a gap in knowledge.
2. It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3. It should lead to further research
4. The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
5. It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and resources
6. The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical
What is the format for writing a statement of the problem?
A persuasive statement of problem is usually written in three parts:
Part A (The ideal): Describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how things should be.
Part B (The reality): Describes a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in Part A from being
achieved or realized at this time; explains how the current situation falls short of the goal or ideal.
Part C (The consequences): Identifies the way you propose to improve the current situation and
move it closer to the goal or ideal.
2.2. Hypothesis formulation
 Begins with an assumption called HYPOTHESIS. A hypothesis is really a temporary explanation,
a kind of educated guess about what will happen under certain conditions.
 Claim (assumption) about a population parameter. An unproven proposition or supposition
that tentatively explains certain facts or phenomena.
2.2.1. Defining hypothesis
Research hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome. I.e. it
predicts the likely relationship between independent variable and dependent variable. Also suggest or
guess answers to the research questions before the study is embarked upon.
A hypothesis is an assumption about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of
which you do not know. A hypothesis is a proposition, condition, or principle which is assumed
perhaps without belief, in order to draw out its logical consequences and this method to test its accord

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Chapter –II- Formulation of the Research problem (Lecture Note) 2023

with facts which are known or may be determined. Hypothesis is a proposition that is stated in a
testable form and that predicts a particular relationship between two or more variables. Hypothesis is
a tentative statement about something, the validity of which is usually unknown.
2.2.2. Hypothesis versus research Question
Also be noted one research question can generate multiple research hypotheses. The difference
between a research question and a research hypothesis is known versus unknown: They are
related. A hypothesis is not a question, but rather it is a statement about the relationship between
two or more variables.
What is the difference between Research Question and Hypothesis?

• Though research question and hypothesis serve the same purpose, their differences necessitate
using either in a particular research type. In general, quantitative research favors the hypothesis while
research question is preferred in qualitative research
• Hypothesis is predictive in nature and predicts relationship between variables
• Hypothesis is more specific than research question
• Research question poses a question while hypothesis predicts the outcome of the research
2.2.3. Possible sources of hypothesis
There are diverse sources of hypothesis in research. First, an explorative research work might lead
to the establishment of hypothesis. Second, the environment is a source of hypothesis, because
environment portrays broad relationship across factors which form the basis for drawing an
inference. Third, analogies are a source of hypothesis. The term analogies refer to parallelism.
Though human system and animal system are different, there is some parallelism. That is why
medicines are tried first on rats or monkeys then used for human consumption. So, hypothesis on
animal behavior can be done based on proven behavior of human and vice versa. Similarly, between
thermodynamics and group dynamics, biological system and social system, nervous system
and central processing unit of a computer, parallelism can be thought of and spring hypotheses there
from. Fourth, previous research studies are a great source of hypotheses. That is why review of
literature is made. Fifth, assumptions of certain theories become a source of hypothesis in research.
Similarly, exceptions to certain theory are ground for new hypotheses. Sixth, personal experiences
and experiences of others are another source of hypotheses. Everyone encounters numerous
experiences in day to day life in relation to one’s avocation. From these glimpses of hypothetical
relations between events, variables, etc emanate. These are, therefore, bases for establishment of
possible hypotheses. Seventh, social, physical and other theories and laws provide for hypotheses.
Newton’s laws of motion might be a source of hypotheses, in social science, say behavior and reward
and the like. Finally, for the research mind, the whole universe is a source of hypotheses. Yes. The
searching mind fathoms out new hypotheses from seemingly events of insignificance.

2.2.4. Null and Alternative hypothesis

 Hypothesis can be formulated in 2 forms: Null and alternative.
Null hypothesis is stated in a negative form. Ho is use to represent null hypothesis. It is a non-
directional hypothesis. It is non-directional because it does not indicate a favorable or negative
expectation of the findings. Alternative hypothesis stated in positive form. This is a directional
hypothesis and H1 is use to represent alternative hypothesis. It specifies the relationship between
variables.
2.2.5. Basic characteristics of good hypothesis
A good hypothesis is specific, meaning that the concepts are carefully defined. And finally, a good

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hypothesis must be testable, and it cannot be a tautology.

1. Should be empirical statements i.e., susceptible to observation. The hypotheses should not
be normative.
2. A second desirable attribute of a good hypothesis is generality. It explains a general
phenomenon, rather than a single occurrence.
3. A good hypothesis should be plausible - it shouldn't defy logic.
2.3. Process of testing hypothesis
Hypothesis testing is a set of logical and statistical guidelines used to make decisions from sample
statistics to population characteristics.
Hypothesis testing is a scientific process of testing whether or not the hypothesis is plausible. The
following steps are involved in hypothesis testing:

The first step is to state the null and alternative hypothesis clearly. The null and alternative
hypothesis in hypothesis testing can be a one tailed or two tailed test.

The second step is to determine the test size. This means that the researcher decides whether a
test should be one tailed or two tailed to get the right critical value and the rejection region.

The third step is to compute the test statistic and the probability value. This step of the hypothesis
testing also involves the construction of the confidence interval depending upon the testing approach.

The fourth step involves the decision making step. This step of hypothesis testing helps the
researcher reject or accept the null hypothesis by making comparisons between the subjective
criterion from the second step and the objective test statistic or the probability value from the third
step.

The fifth step is to draw a conclusion about the data and interpret the results obtained from the
data.

There are basically three approaches to hypothesis testing. The researcher should note that all three
approaches require different subject criteria and objective statistics, but all three approaches give the
same conclusion.

The first approach is to test the statistic approach.

The common steps in all three approaches of hypothesis testing is the first step, which is to state the
null and alternative hypothesis.

The second step of the test statistic approach is to determine the test size and to obtain the critical
value. The third step is to compute the test statistic. The fourth step is to reject or accept the null
hypothesis depending upon the comparison between the tabulated value and the calculated value. If
the tabulated value in hypothesis testing is more than the calculated value, than the null hypothesis is
accepted. Otherwise it is rejected. The last step of this approach of hypothesis testing is to make a
substantive interpretation.

The second approach of hypothesis testing is the probability value approach. The second step of
this approach is to determine the test size. The third step is to compute the test statistic and the
probability value. The fourth step of this approach is to reject the null hypothesis if the probability
value is less than the tabulated value. The last step of this approach of hypothesis testing is to make a

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substantive interpretation.

The third approach is the confidence interval approach. The second step is to determine the test
size or the (1-test size) and the hypothesized value. The third step is to construct the confidence
interval. The fourth step is to reject the null hypothesis if the hypothesized value does not exist in the
range of the confidence interval. The last step of this approach of hypothesis testing is to make the
substantive interpretation.

The first approach of hypothesis testing is a classical test statistic approach, which computes a test
statistic from the empirical data and then makes a comparison with the critical value. If the test
statistic in this classical approach is larger than the critical value, then the null hypothesis is rejected.
Otherwise, it is accepted.

2.3.1. State the hypothesis

The null hypothesis can be thought of as the opposite of the "guess" the research made (in this
example the biologist thinks the plant height will be different for the fertilizers). So the null would be
that there will be no difference among the groups of plants. Specifically in more statistical language
the null for an ANOVA is that the means are the same. The reason we state the alternative hypothesis
this way is that if the Null is rejected, there are many possibilities.
2.3.2. Determine the appropriate test statistics
A test statistic is a random variable that is calculated from sample data and used in a hypothesis test.
You can use test statistics to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis. The test statistic
compares your data with what is expected under the null hypothesis. The test statistic is used to
calculate the p-value.

A test statistic measures the degree of agreement between a sample of data and the null hypothesis.
Its observed value changes randomly from one random sample to a different sample. A test statistic
contains information about the data that is relevant for deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis.
The sampling distribution of the test statistic under the null hypothesis is called the null distribution.
When the data show strong evidence against the assumptions in the null hypothesis, the magnitude of
the test statistic becomes too large or too small depending on the alternative hypothesis. This causes
the test's p-value to become small enough to reject the null hypothesis.

For example, the test statistic for a Z-test is the Z-statistic, which has the standard normal distribution
under the null hypothesis. Suppose you perform a two-tailed Z-test with an α of 0.05, and obtain a Z-
statistic (also called a Z-value) based on your data of 2.5. This Z-value corresponds to a p-value of
0.0124. Because this p-value is less than α, you declare statistical significance and reject the null
hypothesis.

Different hypothesis tests use different test statistics based on the probability model assumed in the
null hypothesis. Common tests and their test statistics include:
Hypothesis test Test statistic

Z-test Z-statistic

t-tests t-statistic

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Hypothesis test Test statistic

ANOVA F-statistic

Chi-square tests Chi-square statistic

2.3.3. Specify the significance level

The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
when it is true. For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a
difference exists when there is no actual difference. The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α,
is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For example, a significance level of
0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a difference exists when there is no actual difference.
These types of definitions can be hard to understand because of their technical nature. A picture
makes the concepts much easier to comprehend!

The significance level determines how far out from the null hypothesis value we'll draw that line on
the graph. To graph a significance level of 0.05, we need to shade the 5% of the distribution that is
furthest away from the null hypothesis.
2.3.4. Determine the decision rule
The level of significance is defined as the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis by the test when it
is really true, which is denoted as α. That is, P (Type I error) = α.
Confidence level:
Confidence level refers to the possibility of a parameter that lies within a specified range of values,
which is denoted as c. Moreover, the confidence level is connected with the level of significance. The
relationship between level of significance and the confidence level is c=1−α.
The common level of significance and the corresponding confidence level are given below:
• The level of significance 0.10 is related to the 90% confidence level.
• The level of significance 0.05 is related to the 95% confidence level.
• The level of significance 0.01 is related to the 99% confidence level.
The rejection rule is as follows:

Rejection region:
The rejection region is the values of test statistic for which the null hypothesis is rejected.
Non rejection region:
The set of all possible values for which the null hypothesis is not rejected is called the rejection region.
The rejection region for two-tailed test is shown below:

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Chapter –II- Formulation of the Research problem (Lecture Note) 2023

The rejection region for one-tailed test is given below:

• In the left-tailed test, the rejection region is shaded in left side.
• In the right-tailed test, the rejection region is shaded in right side.
2.3.5. Collect data & perform the needed conclusion
The purpose of most experiments is to prove or disprove a hypothesis. Scientists do this by
collecting data, analyzing it and drawing a conclusion. Scientists have ways to organize
their data that make it easier for them to understand the results. Sometimes they use graphs, and
sometimes they use mean, median and mode.
2.3.6. Decide to reject or not reject and produce conclusion
Suppose that you do a hypothesis test. Remember that the decision to reject the null
hypothesis (H 0) or fail to reject it can be based on the p-value and your chosen significance level
(also called α). If the p-value is less than or equal to α, you reject H 0; if it is greater than α, you fail to
reject H0.

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