Test Bank for Life-Span Development Infancy Through Adulthood, 1st Edition: Steinberg

Test Bank for Life-Span Development Infancy

Through Adulthood, 1st Edition: Steinberg

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Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early
Childhood

Student: ___________________________________________________________________________

1. Dr. Annapurna is studying the normal physical growth patterns of children. Every year, she measures the
heights and weights of the same 100 children. She will follow their development from birth to age 18. Dr.
Annapurna is using what type of research design?
A. Cross-sectional
B. Longitudinal
C. Solomon four-way
D. Quasi-experimental

2. Dr. Bradley is studying the normal physical growth patterns of children. This year, he will measure 100
children in each age group from birth to age 18. Dr. Bradley is using what type of research design?
A. Cross-sectional
B. Longitudinal
C. Solomon four-way
D. Quasi-experimental

3. On average, children in the preschool years grow __________ inches and gain __________ pounds each
year.
A. 1?; 3
B. 2?; 6
C. 3; 3
D. 4; 6

4. Physical growth in early childhood happens

A. slowly and steadily.
B. mostly at the beginning of the stage.
C. in fits and starts.
D. mostly at the end of the stage.
5. Dr. Andersen is measuring children’s body mass index. The formula he uses for his calculations is
A. weight/height2.
B. weight2/height.
C. weight/height.
D. height2/weight.

6. Hideo is 4 years old. He’s currently 1 meter tall and weighs 16 kg. His body mass index is about
A. 12.
B. 14.
C. 16.
D. 18.

7. In which of the following percentiles for body mass index would a child be considered overweight?
A. 60th
B. 70th
C. 80th
D. 90th

8. During early childhood, children’s appetites

A. stay the same as they were in infancy.
B. decrease from their standard in infancy.
C. increase slightly from their standard in infancy.
D. increase a lot from their standard in infancy.

9. The best advice to give parents about dinnertime for preschoolers is to

A. make them clean their plates because they need lots of good nutrition at this stage.
B. let them eat as much as they want, and then let them stop when they want.
C. be careful to keep them from overeating at any one meal to prevent them from becoming obese.
D. hide a food that's good for them into a food that they already like.

10. The cells that carry information within the brain are called
A. neurons.
B. chromatids.
C. axilla.
D. systoles.
11. The part of the neuron that transmits information to other neurons is the __________, and the part that
receives information from other neurons is the __________.
A. axon; dendrite
B. dendrite; axon
C. synapse; axon
D. dendrite; synapse

12. The junction where two neurons meet to exchange information is the
A. dendrite.
B. axon.
C. synapse.
D. cell body.

13. Synaptogenesis is the process of

A. creating new neurons.
B. creating new connections between neurons.
C. removing unused neural connections.
D. removing unused neurons.

14. When 5-year-old Ken is playing with his puzzles and reading to his younger sister, he is engaging in
activities that promote
A. synaptic pruning.
B. neuropathology.
C. dendritic axonia.
D. synaptogenesis.

15. In early childhood, the process that provides "back-up insurance" for the plasticity of the brain is called
A. synaptic pruning.
B. synaptogenesis.
C. myelination.
D. neuro-linguistic programming.

16. The process that makes the operation of the brain more efficient by eliminating unused or unneeded neural
connections is called
A. synaptic pruning.
B. synaptogenesis.
C. myelination.
D. neuro-linguistic programming.
17. The fatty substance wrapped around axons is called
A. myelin.
B. myocardium.
C. mycelium.
D. myosin.

18. The last areas of the brain to be completely myelinated are in the
A. motor coordination areas.
B. areas that govern eye-hand coordination.
C. frontal lobes.
D. cerebellum.

19. Isaac is 6 years old. Although he used to have a lot trouble holding crayons and writing when he was
younger, he can now print his name quite legibly. This is mostly due to
A. myelination.
B. canalization.
C. neurogenesis.
D. dendrochronology.

20. The first area of the brain to develop during early childhood is the
A. frontal cortex.
B. parietal lobe.
C. motor cortex.
D. occipital lobe.

21. The part of the brain that controls reasoning and executive functions is the
A. frontal cortex.
B. parietal lobe.
C. motor cortex.
D. occipital lobe.

22. The specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain is termed
A. synaptogenesis.
B. lateralization.
C. myelination.
D. mirror neuron.
23. The left side of the brain is generally related to processing
A. patterns and images.
B. internal stimuli.
C. language.
D. emotions.

24. Kenji is trying to figure out where a particular puzzle piece belongs. This information is generally processed
in his brain’s
A. prefrontal cortex.
B. right hemisphere.
C. left hemisphere.
D. occipital lobe.

25. Ali’s right foot is controlled by his brain’s

A. prefrontal cortex.
B. right hemisphere.
C. left hemisphere.
D. occipital lobe.

26. The left and right hemispheres of the brain are connected by the
A. amygdala.
B. hippocampus.
C. frontal lobes.
D. corpus callosum.

27. Two-year-old Tamir keeps singing the "Oscar Meyer Wiener" song, all day long. His lack of control over
this may be due to the relative immaturity of his brain’s ________________ lobes.
A. frontal
B. parietal
C. occipital
D. temporal

28. The degree to which brain development can be altered by experience is called
A. synaptogenesis.
B. synaptic pruning.
C. vitrification.
D. brain plasticity.
29. Four-year-old Nakai and his teenage cousin Nascha are both trying to learn American Sign Language.
__________ will find it much easier because __________.
A. Nascha; she has more experience at learning new things.
B. Nascha; she can attach the new information to what she already knows.
C. Nakai; his brain is mostly empty, so he has lots of space for new knowledge.
D. Nakai; his brain is currently undergoing rapid growth in its language centers.

30. When parts of a child’s brain are undergoing extremely rapid development, we say that the child is in a(n)
__________ for the activities associated with those structures.
A. state of synaptic pruning
B. sensitive period
C. epigenetic period
D. psychophysical normative crisis

31. Ivana can hop and skip, and enjoys skating and riding her scooter. It’s likely that she is at least how many
years old?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6

32. Small movements of the hands and fingers are

A. examples of gross motor skills.
B. examples of fine motor skills.
C. controlled by the occipital lobe of the brain.
D. developed only in middle childhood.

33. John is holding his 1-day-old baby in the hospital and wondering when he will be able to kick a soccer ball.
When he asks the pediatrician, he finds out that it will be at age
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
34. Natasha can dress herself without any help, tie her own shoes, and hold a pencil properly for writing. It’s
likely that she is at least how many years old?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5

35. Cross-cultural studies of children’s ability to create representational drawings of people seem to show that
this skill is
A. hardwired into the brain.
B. influenced by learning.
C. absent in most non-urbanized cultures.
D. more prominent in more rural cultures.

36. The leading cause of death among preschool children in the United States is
A. accidental injuries.
B. the use of illicit drugs.
C. lack of immunization to childhood diseases.
D. malnutrition.

37. The most common cause of death for children between the ages of 1–4 years old is
A. automobile accidents.
B. fires.
C. airway obstructions.
D. drowning.

38. In the United States, roughly what percentage of preschoolers is not fully immunized?
A. 6
B. 12
C. 24
D. 48

39. Hendrik is 4 years old. Last year, he had seven colds, and this year he had nine. His parents are concerned.
What can you tell them about Hendrik’s health?
A. This is perfectly normal. Don’t worry.
B. Hendrik’s extremely healthy. Most children his age get 16–18 colds each year.
C. This is mildly worrisome. Most children Hendrik’s age get only 1–2 colds each year.
D. Hendrik may have neurological damage.
40. Compared to children reared at home, preschoolers in daycare centers tend to be
A. much healthier.
B. much more likely to suffer from diarrhea and ear infections.
C. much more likely to be killed in an accident.
D. about as healthy in all measures.

41. Public health experts have suggested that most childhood deaths from diarrhea worldwide can be eliminated
through
A. immunization.
B. placement of mosquito netting over cribs.
C. oral rehydration therapy.
D. addition of protein to the diet.

42. According to UNICEF and the World Health Organization (2007), the underlying cause of more than half of
the deaths of children under the age of 5 in the world is
A. malaria.
B. malnutrition.
C. measles.
D. bubonic plague.

43. At age 2, children require approximately how many hours of sleep each day?
A. 6–7
B. 8–9
C. 10–11
D. 12–13

44. Oscar is 5 years old. If he’s an average child, you’d expect him to need approximately how many hours of
sleep each day?
A. 6–7
B. 8–9
C. 10–11
D. 12–13

45. Children’s stress levels are tested by checking the amount of which hormone in their saliva?
A. Adrenaline
B. Melatonin
C. Progesterone
D. Cortisol
46. Experiments on children’s visual processing of emotions show that compared to other children, those who
have been abused are
A. less sensitive to all emotional cues.
B. more sensitive to all emotional cues.
C. more sensitive to emotional cues for anger.
D. more sensitive to emotional cues for happiness.

47. Some evidence for brain plasticity is seen in

A. the long-term effects of early child abuse.
B. the inability of 3-year-olds to skate well.
C. the inability of 2-year-olds to tie their shoes.
D. children’s sleep patterns.

48. Most preschoolers fall into which of Jean Piaget’s periods of cognitive development?
A. Formal operations
B. Concrete operations
C. Sensorimotor
D. Preoperational

49. During Jean Piaget’s preoperational period of cognitive development, children learn to engage in
A. symbolic representation.
B. object permanence.
C. logical problem solving.
D. hypothetical reasoning.

50. Young Lancelot is running around the house with a pot on his head, holding a trashcan lid in one hand and a
stick in the other, yelling about killing dragons. Jean Piaget would say that he’s engaged in
A. accommodation.
B. assimilation.
C. pretend play.
D. deferred imitation.

51. A child’s ability to watch something change and then realize that the transformation could be undone is
called
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.
52. Anything that stands for something other than itself is a
A. classification.
B. symbol.
C. conservation task.
D. logical anomaly.

53. Children’s growing use of language in the preoperational period indicates their growing mastery of
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.

54. Three-year-old Ceres is playing with her toy farm. She has 15 cows, 3 pigs, and 2 horses. When her older
brother asks whether there are more cows or more animals, she happily yells out, "more cows!" Ceres has not
yet mastered the concept of
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.

55. At Halloween, Gregory puts on a scary mask that makes him look like a zombie. His 3-year-old brother
Dennis is petrified, believing that Gregory has become a zombie. Dennis has not yet mastered the concept of
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.

56. Freya, a 5-year-old, is having lunch. Her mother pours a tall glass of milk, but Freya objects, saying she
hates milk. Her mother then pours all of the milk into a shorter, wider glass, and tells Freya that she can have
this instead. This makes Freya happy because she now believes that she has less milk. Freya has not yet
mastered the concept of
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.
57. The inability of a preoperational child to see the world from another person’s perspective is called
A. centration.
B. egocentrism.
C. fixation.
D. centrality.

58. Young children demonstrate __________ when they believe that inanimate objects have the same kinds of
thoughts, wishes, and feelings as people do.
A. centration
B. conservation
C. accommodation
D. animism

59. Five-year-old Helios says that the sun is out because it knows that he likes to play in the daytime and that it
goes down at night to let him sleep. Helios is demonstrating Piaget’s concept of
A. animism.
B. centration.
C. representation.
D. conservation.

60. Jean Piaget believed that children’s cognitive growth develops through
A. their own actions and experiments.
B. memorizing things they learn from parents and teachers.
C. reinforcement of appropriate behaviors.
D. the unfolding of their genetic inheritance.

61. The concept of a child’s theory of mind is most closely associated with Piaget’s concept of
A. conservation.
B. classification.
C. causality.
D. egocentrism.

62. In general, research shows that Jean Piaget __________ the cognitive abilities of preschoolers.
A. correctly gauged
B. overestimated
C. underestimated
D. both underestimated and overestimated
63. A child who understands the difference between his or her own mental states and those of others has
developed
A. combinatorial logic.
B. a theory of mind.
C. animistic thinking.
D. centration.

64. Benjamin shows 3-year-old Candice a shoebox and asks her what’s inside. "Shoes," she replies. He opens
the box. It’s full of cookies. Then he closes the box and tells Candice that he’s going to give the box to Pandora
and to ask Pandora to guess what’s inside. Candice predicts that Pandora will say "cookies." Candice has not yet
developed
A. combinatorial logic.
B. a theory of mind.
C. animistic thinking.
D. centration.

65. A theory of mind seems to develop from

A. both maturation of the brain and experience with other people.
B. experience with other people.
C. maturation of the brain.
D. the unfolding of a child’s genetic programming.

66. Experiments have demonstrated that children as young as what age show evidence of a theory of mind?
A. 1 years old
B. 2 years old
C. 3 years old
D. 4 years old

67. Who viewed children’s cognitive development as the result of collaboration with other, more experienced
people in a particular social setting?
A. Jean Piaget
B. Judy DeLoache
C. Lev Vygotsky
D. Eleanor Maccoby
68. Lev Vygotsky believed that children’s cognitive development was a product of
A. genetic predeterminism.
B. their individual explorations.
C. appropriate reinforcement and punishment.
D. learning from other, more competent people.

69. The set of skills and ideas that are just beyond a child’s level of competence, but can be mastered if that
child receives some help, are known as the zone of
A. proximal development.
B. distal development.
C. cephalocaudal development.
D. preoperational development.

70. When little Dylan is having trouble adding two-digit numbers, his teacher hints that maybe he needs to think
about how to carry numbers. With that hint, Dylan sees his error and begins to solve the problem correctly.
Adding two-digit numbers seems to be in Dylan’s zone of
A. proximal development.
B. distal development.
C. cephalocaudal development.
D. preoperational development.

71. When little Gwendolyn is having trouble adding two-digit numbers, her teacher hints that maybe she needs
to think about how to carry numbers. With that hint, Gwendolyn sees her error and begins to solve the problem
correctly. The teacher’s hint is a form of
A. the zone of proximal development.
B. positive reinforcement.
C. scaffolding.
D. inner speech.

72. Providing hints, clues, and appropriate learning opportunities for a child are forms of
A. the zone of proximal development.
B. positive reinforcement.
C. scaffolding.
D. inner speech.
73. Which quote best exemplifies the idea of scaffolding?
A. "I think I can. I think I can."
B. "Just do it."
C. "You can do it. We can help."
D. "Not now. Not ever."

74. All of the following behaviors demonstrate Barbara Rogoff’s concept of guided participation except
A. scaffolding.
B. participating in holiday celebrations.
C. listening to adults gossip.
D. taking apart a motor to see how it works.

75. According to Barbara Rogoff (2003), children learn their society’s values and practices through
A. accommodation.
B. guided participation.
C. symbolic representation.
D. centration.

76. Who believed that children develop language by creating mental representations?
A. Myrtle McGraw
B. Jean Piaget
C. B.F. Skinner
D. Lev Vygotsky

77. Who believed that children develop language in order to establish and maintain social contact?
A. Myrtle McGraw
B. Jean Piaget
C. B.F. Skinner
D. Lev Vygotsky

78. A baby points to its bottle and says, "Baaaa!" Her mother responds by saying, "Yes, that’s a bottle." The two
of them are engaging in
A. inner speech.
B. infant-directed speech.
C. social speech.
D. deferred imitation.
79. Piaget viewed language acquisition as
A. following the ability to mentally represent things.
B. the result of reinforcement.
C. an attempt to maintain social contact.
D. the first step into a child’s zone of proximal development.

80. Stacy is driving to her doctor’s office. As she drives, she tells herself such things as, "I need to turn left
here," and "Now, I’m looking for a blue building on the right." Stacy is engaging in
A. inner talk.
B. infant-directed speech.
C. social speech.
D. motherese.

81. Improvements in a child’s ability to focus her attention are due to the development of the
A. amygdala and hippocampus.
B. medulla and occipital lobe.
C. parietal lobe and Broca’s area.
D. prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.

82. One way to measure attention span is the

A. digit span task.
B. continuous performance task.
C. Stroop test.
D. Thematic Apperception Test.

83. The first stage of memory processing is

A. working memory.
B. long-term memory.
C. short-term memory.
D. sensory memory.

84. Sensory memory does which of the following?

A. Stores information for later retrieval
B. Encodes memory for immediate use or storage
C. Picks up information from the environment
D. Clears the memory to make room for new information
85. Working memory does which of the following?
A. Stores information for later retrieval
B. Encodes memory for immediate use or storage
C. Picks up information from the environment
D. Clears the memory to make room for new information

86. Long-term memory does which of the following?

A. Stores information for later retrieval
B. Encodes memory for immediate use or storage
C. Picks up information from the environment
D. Clears the memory to make room for new information

87. Information stored in long-term memory usually lasts for a

A. few minutes.
B. few days.
C. few months.
D. lifetime.

88. Ian and his mother are looking at family pictures. His mother asks him to find a picture of his cousin. Ian
will most likely use what type of strategy to find the right photograph?
A. Recall
B. Recognition
C. Reconciliation
D. Reciprocity

89. Leonardo’s father asks him the name of his favorite television show. To answer the question, Leonardo
would need to use which strategy to retrieve the information from his memory?
A. Recall
B. Recognition
C. Reconciliation
D. Reciprocity

90. Judith asks her daughter Sofia what happens at a fast food restaurant. Sofia tells her that you go in, stand in
line, look at the menu, ask for what you want, pay for it, get your food, sit down, eat, clean up, and leave. Sofia
has stored this information in
A. procedural memory.
B. episodic memory.
C. generic memory.
D. implicit memory.
91. When you remember what happened at your fifth birthday party, you are using
A. procedural memory.
B. episodic memory.
C. generic memory.
D. implicit memory.

92. Memory that consists of individual episodes that are personally meaningful and eventually become part of
the child's self-concept is __________ memory. Recall of such personally relevant episodes begins at age
__________.
A. autobiographical; 3
B. autobiographical; 4
C. generic; 2
D. generic; 3

93. Helping a child remember more about a specific incident is a form of

A. accommodation.
B. conservation.
C. preoperation.
D. scaffolding.

94. The average 2-year-old knows approximately how many words?

A. 50
B. 100
C. 200
D. 400

95. At what age, does the average child have a vocabulary of approximately 8,000–14,000 words?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6

96. What allows children to get a basic sense of a word’s meaning after only a few instances?
A. Telegraphic speech
B. Inner speech
C. Fast mapping
D. A theory of mind
97. Children who are between 18 and 36 months old create two-word sentences that psychologists call
A. morphology.
B. word linking.
C. telegraphic speech.
D. IM texting speech.

98. Little Amanda used telegraphic speech when she said,

A. "Amanda go stroller."
B. "Bottle!"
C. "Da da goo goo."
D. "Give dolly."

99. Children begin to create sentences using three words or more when they are approximately how many years
old?
A. 1?–2
B. 2?–3
C. 3?–4
D. 4?–5

100. The basic rules concerning word order are called

A. semantics.
B. pragmatics.
C. morphology.
D. syntax.

101. Children begin to construct words based on internalized rules of how language works when they are
approximately how many years old?
A. 2–3
B. 3–4
C. 4–5
D. 5–6

102. Overregulation is the

A. fact that children are afraid to talk until they are sure of what to say.
B. fact that some parents tend to correct children’s speech too often, harming their self-esteem.
C. cause of errors in children’s word use, based on their internalized rules of speech.
D. cause of emotional stress that traps children in the anal stage of development.
103. When children mistakenly construct words based on internalized rules, such as saying "mouses" instead of
"mice," the process is termed
A. syntax.
B. semantics.
C. morphology.
D. overregulation.

104. Which of the following terms refers to the meaning of words and sentences?
A. Syntax
B. Semantics
C. Morphology
D. Overregulation

105. As children acquire concepts, they become more adept at

A. syntax.
B. reversibility.
C. categorization.
D. conservation.

106. Young children's concepts are

A. both abstract and concrete.
B. not as advanced as Piaget believed.
C. limited to what they can see or touch.
D. driven by appearance.

107. Children can generally recite the alphabet and relate stories to their own experiences by the time they are
approximately how many years old?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6

108. Most children begin to enjoy rhyming and word play when they are approximately how many years old?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
109. Even babies learn the difference between the ideas of more and less. This is the basic concept of
A. numbers.
B. counting.
C. magnitude.
D. addition.

110. The idea that anything can be counted is called the

A. stable order principle.
B. cardinality principle.
C. order irrelevance principle.
D. abstraction principle.

111. When little Martha discovers that she can count things beginning with any item as long as she only counts
them each once and is sure to count them all, she has mastered the
A. stable order principle.
B. cardinality principle.
C. order irrelevance principle.
D. abstraction principle.

112. Children seem to master the basic ideas of addition and subtraction when they are approximately how
many years old?
A. 1–2
B. 2–3
C. 3–4
D. 4–5

113. The argument that mathematical reasoning is biologically based is given credence by the fact that
A. wealthy children have higher math scores than poorer children.
B. mathematically-based games seem to promote the understanding of mathematical concepts.
C. good preschool programs can boost children’s mathematical abilities.
D. all children seem to develop basic mathematical thinking at an early age.

114. When investigating the structural quality of daycare facilities, researchers look at the
A. ratio of adults to children.
B. quality of adult-child interactions.
C. variety of stimulating toys and materials available.
D. number of children wandering aimlessly.
115. When evaluating the process quality of daycare facilities, researchers look at the
A. variety of stimulating activities and materials.
B. ratio of children to adults.
C. level of caregivers’ specialized training.
D. number of children in a classroom.

116. How did scores on standardized tests of memory and preacademic skills compare for children in in-home
care, daycare homes, and daycare centers?
A. Those of children in in-home care were the highest.
B. Those of children in daycare homes were the highest.
C. Those of children in daycare centers were the highest.
D. All were comparable.

117. Which of the following is a finding of the Head Start Impact Study that charted the progress of 3-year-olds,
in pre-reading skills and behavior, after one year in a Head Start program?
A. Their scores matched the national average, as did the incidence of their behavior problems.
B. Their scores were substantially higher than those of the control group, and they had fewer behavior
problems.
C. There was no improvement in their scores over those of the control group, but they had many fewer behavior
problems.
D. Their scores were better than those of the control group, but they had a greater incidence of behavior
problems.

118. Describe the development of fine motor skills in early childhood. Explain how both brain development and
experience contribute to this progression.
119. Explain how elements from cases of child abuse and child neglect give us evidence for plasticity, or lack of
it, in children’s brains.

120. Explain and give examples of the thinking processes of children in the preoperational period described by
Piaget. Discuss limitations on their thinking abilities, as well.

121. Describe Lev Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development and how it explains children’s
cognitive development. Discuss the influence of language in your essay.

122. Explain how adults can encourage the development of literacy in children.
Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early
Childhood Key

1. Dr. Annapurna is studying the normal physical growth patterns of children. Every year, she measures the
heights and weights of the same 100 children. She will follow their development from birth to age 18. Dr.
Annapurna is using what type of research design?
A. Cross-sectional
B. Longitudinal
C. Solomon four-way
D. Quasi-experimental

2. Dr. Bradley is studying the normal physical growth patterns of children. This year, he will measure 100
children in each age group from birth to age 18. Dr. Bradley is using what type of research design?
A. Cross-sectional
B. Longitudinal
C. Solomon four-way
D. Quasi-experimental

3. On average, children in the preschool years grow __________ inches and gain __________ pounds each
year.
A. 1?; 3
B. 2?; 6
C. 3; 3
D. 4; 6

4. Physical growth in early childhood happens

A. slowly and steadily.
B. mostly at the beginning of the stage.
C. in fits and starts.
D. mostly at the end of the stage.

5. Dr. Andersen is measuring children’s body mass index. The formula he uses for his calculations is
A. weight/height2.
B. weight2/height.
C. weight/height.
D. height2/weight.
6. Hideo is 4 years old. He’s currently 1 meter tall and weighs 16 kg. His body mass index is about
A. 12.
B. 14.
C. 16.
D. 18.

7. In which of the following percentiles for body mass index would a child be considered overweight?
A. 60th
B. 70th
C. 80th
D. 90th

8. During early childhood, children’s appetites

A. stay the same as they were in infancy.
B. decrease from their standard in infancy.
C. increase slightly from their standard in infancy.
D. increase a lot from their standard in infancy.

9. The best advice to give parents about dinnertime for preschoolers is to

A. make them clean their plates because they need lots of good nutrition at this stage.
B. let them eat as much as they want, and then let them stop when they want.
C. be careful to keep them from overeating at any one meal to prevent them from becoming obese.
D. hide a food that's good for them into a food that they already like.

10. The cells that carry information within the brain are called
A. neurons.
B. chromatids.
C. axilla.
D. systoles.

11. The part of the neuron that transmits information to other neurons is the __________, and the part that
receives information from other neurons is the __________.
A. axon; dendrite
B. dendrite; axon
C. synapse; axon
D. dendrite; synapse
12. The junction where two neurons meet to exchange information is the
A. dendrite.
B. axon.
C. synapse.
D. cell body.

13. Synaptogenesis is the process of

A. creating new neurons.
B. creating new connections between neurons.
C. removing unused neural connections.
D. removing unused neurons.

14. When 5-year-old Ken is playing with his puzzles and reading to his younger sister, he is engaging in
activities that promote
A. synaptic pruning.
B. neuropathology.
C. dendritic axonia.
D. synaptogenesis.

15. In early childhood, the process that provides "back-up insurance" for the plasticity of the brain is called
A. synaptic pruning.
B. synaptogenesis.
C. myelination.
D. neuro-linguistic programming.

16. The process that makes the operation of the brain more efficient by eliminating unused or unneeded neural
connections is called
A. synaptic pruning.
B. synaptogenesis.
C. myelination.
D. neuro-linguistic programming.

17. The fatty substance wrapped around axons is called

A. myelin.
B. myocardium.
C. mycelium.
D. myosin.
18. The last areas of the brain to be completely myelinated are in the
A. motor coordination areas.
B. areas that govern eye-hand coordination.
C. frontal lobes.
D. cerebellum.

19. Isaac is 6 years old. Although he used to have a lot trouble holding crayons and writing when he was
younger, he can now print his name quite legibly. This is mostly due to
A. myelination.
B. canalization.
C. neurogenesis.
D. dendrochronology.

20. The first area of the brain to develop during early childhood is the
A. frontal cortex.
B. parietal lobe.
C. motor cortex.
D. occipital lobe.

21. The part of the brain that controls reasoning and executive functions is the
A. frontal cortex.
B. parietal lobe.
C. motor cortex.
D. occipital lobe.

22. The specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain is termed
A. synaptogenesis.
B. lateralization.
C. myelination.
D. mirror neuron.

23. The left side of the brain is generally related to processing

A. patterns and images.
B. internal stimuli.
C. language.
D. emotions.
24. Kenji is trying to figure out where a particular puzzle piece belongs. This information is generally processed
in his brain’s
A. prefrontal cortex.
B. right hemisphere.
C. left hemisphere.
D. occipital lobe.

25. Ali’s right foot is controlled by his brain’s

A. prefrontal cortex.
B. right hemisphere.
C. left hemisphere.
D. occipital lobe.

26. The left and right hemispheres of the brain are connected by the
A. amygdala.
B. hippocampus.
C. frontal lobes.
D. corpus callosum.

27. Two-year-old Tamir keeps singing the "Oscar Meyer Wiener" song, all day long. His lack of control over
this may be due to the relative immaturity of his brain’s ________________ lobes.
A. frontal
B. parietal
C. occipital
D. temporal

28. The degree to which brain development can be altered by experience is called
A. synaptogenesis.
B. synaptic pruning.
C. vitrification.
D. brain plasticity.

29. Four-year-old Nakai and his teenage cousin Nascha are both trying to learn American Sign Language.
__________ will find it much easier because __________.
A. Nascha; she has more experience at learning new things.
B. Nascha; she can attach the new information to what she already knows.
C. Nakai; his brain is mostly empty, so he has lots of space for new knowledge.
D. Nakai; his brain is currently undergoing rapid growth in its language centers.
30. When parts of a child’s brain are undergoing extremely rapid development, we say that the child is in a(n)
__________ for the activities associated with those structures.
A. state of synaptic pruning
B. sensitive period
C. epigenetic period
D. psychophysical normative crisis

31. Ivana can hop and skip, and enjoys skating and riding her scooter. It’s likely that she is at least how many
years old?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6

32. Small movements of the hands and fingers are

A. examples of gross motor skills.
B. examples of fine motor skills.
C. controlled by the occipital lobe of the brain.
D. developed only in middle childhood.

33. John is holding his 1-day-old baby in the hospital and wondering when he will be able to kick a soccer ball.
When he asks the pediatrician, he finds out that it will be at age
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5

34. Natasha can dress herself without any help, tie her own shoes, and hold a pencil properly for writing. It’s
likely that she is at least how many years old?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
35. Cross-cultural studies of children’s ability to create representational drawings of people seem to show that
this skill is
A. hardwired into the brain.
B. influenced by learning.
C. absent in most non-urbanized cultures.
D. more prominent in more rural cultures.

36. The leading cause of death among preschool children in the United States is
A. accidental injuries.
B. the use of illicit drugs.
C. lack of immunization to childhood diseases.
D. malnutrition.

37. The most common cause of death for children between the ages of 1–4 years old is
A. automobile accidents.
B. fires.
C. airway obstructions.
D. drowning.

38. In the United States, roughly what percentage of preschoolers is not fully immunized?
A. 6
B. 12
C. 24
D. 48

39. Hendrik is 4 years old. Last year, he had seven colds, and this year he had nine. His parents are concerned.
What can you tell them about Hendrik’s health?
A. This is perfectly normal. Don’t worry.
B. Hendrik’s extremely healthy. Most children his age get 16–18 colds each year.
C. This is mildly worrisome. Most children Hendrik’s age get only 1–2 colds each year.
D. Hendrik may have neurological damage.

40. Compared to children reared at home, preschoolers in daycare centers tend to be

A. much healthier.
B. much more likely to suffer from diarrhea and ear infections.
C. much more likely to be killed in an accident.
D. about as healthy in all measures.
41. Public health experts have suggested that most childhood deaths from diarrhea worldwide can be eliminated
through
A. immunization.
B. placement of mosquito netting over cribs.
C. oral rehydration therapy.
D. addition of protein to the diet.

42. According to UNICEF and the World Health Organization (2007), the underlying cause of more than half of
the deaths of children under the age of 5 in the world is
A. malaria.
B. malnutrition.
C. measles.
D. bubonic plague.

43. At age 2, children require approximately how many hours of sleep each day?
A. 6–7
B. 8–9
C. 10–11
D. 12–13

44. Oscar is 5 years old. If he’s an average child, you’d expect him to need approximately how many hours of
sleep each day?
A. 6–7
B. 8–9
C. 10–11
D. 12–13

45. Children’s stress levels are tested by checking the amount of which hormone in their saliva?
A. Adrenaline
B. Melatonin
C. Progesterone
D. Cortisol

46. Experiments on children’s visual processing of emotions show that compared to other children, those who
have been abused are
A. less sensitive to all emotional cues.
B. more sensitive to all emotional cues.
C. more sensitive to emotional cues for anger.
D. more sensitive to emotional cues for happiness.
47. Some evidence for brain plasticity is seen in
A. the long-term effects of early child abuse.
B. the inability of 3-year-olds to skate well.
C. the inability of 2-year-olds to tie their shoes.
D. children’s sleep patterns.

48. Most preschoolers fall into which of Jean Piaget’s periods of cognitive development?
A. Formal operations
B. Concrete operations
C. Sensorimotor
D. Preoperational

49. During Jean Piaget’s preoperational period of cognitive development, children learn to engage in
A. symbolic representation.
B. object permanence.
C. logical problem solving.
D. hypothetical reasoning.

50. Young Lancelot is running around the house with a pot on his head, holding a trashcan lid in one hand and a
stick in the other, yelling about killing dragons. Jean Piaget would say that he’s engaged in
A. accommodation.
B. assimilation.
C. pretend play.
D. deferred imitation.

51. A child’s ability to watch something change and then realize that the transformation could be undone is
called
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.

52. Anything that stands for something other than itself is a

A. classification.
B. symbol.
C. conservation task.
D. logical anomaly.
53. Children’s growing use of language in the preoperational period indicates their growing mastery of
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.

54. Three-year-old Ceres is playing with her toy farm. She has 15 cows, 3 pigs, and 2 horses. When her older
brother asks whether there are more cows or more animals, she happily yells out, "more cows!" Ceres has not
yet mastered the concept of
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.

55. At Halloween, Gregory puts on a scary mask that makes him look like a zombie. His 3-year-old brother
Dennis is petrified, believing that Gregory has become a zombie. Dennis has not yet mastered the concept of
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.

56. Freya, a 5-year-old, is having lunch. Her mother pours a tall glass of milk, but Freya objects, saying she
hates milk. Her mother then pours all of the milk into a shorter, wider glass, and tells Freya that she can have
this instead. This makes Freya happy because she now believes that she has less milk. Freya has not yet
mastered the concept of
A. classification.
B. conservation.
C. representation.
D. reversibility.

57. The inability of a preoperational child to see the world from another person’s perspective is called
A. centration.
B. egocentrism.
C. fixation.
D. centrality.
58. Young children demonstrate __________ when they believe that inanimate objects have the same kinds of
thoughts, wishes, and feelings as people do.
A. centration
B. conservation
C. accommodation
D. animism

59. Five-year-old Helios says that the sun is out because it knows that he likes to play in the daytime and that it
goes down at night to let him sleep. Helios is demonstrating Piaget’s concept of
A. animism.
B. centration.
C. representation.
D. conservation.

60. Jean Piaget believed that children’s cognitive growth develops through
A. their own actions and experiments.
B. memorizing things they learn from parents and teachers.
C. reinforcement of appropriate behaviors.
D. the unfolding of their genetic inheritance.

61. The concept of a child’s theory of mind is most closely associated with Piaget’s concept of
A. conservation.
B. classification.
C. causality.
D. egocentrism.

62. In general, research shows that Jean Piaget __________ the cognitive abilities of preschoolers.
A. correctly gauged
B. overestimated
C. underestimated
D. both underestimated and overestimated

63. A child who understands the difference between his or her own mental states and those of others has
developed
A. combinatorial logic.
B. a theory of mind.
C. animistic thinking.
D. centration.
64. Benjamin shows 3-year-old Candice a shoebox and asks her what’s inside. "Shoes," she replies. He opens
the box. It’s full of cookies. Then he closes the box and tells Candice that he’s going to give the box to Pandora
and to ask Pandora to guess what’s inside. Candice predicts that Pandora will say "cookies." Candice has not yet
developed
A. combinatorial logic.
B. a theory of mind.
C. animistic thinking.
D. centration.

65. A theory of mind seems to develop from

A. both maturation of the brain and experience with other people.
B. experience with other people.
C. maturation of the brain.
D. the unfolding of a child’s genetic programming.

66. Experiments have demonstrated that children as young as what age show evidence of a theory of mind?
A. 1 years old
B. 2 years old
C. 3 years old
D. 4 years old

67. Who viewed children’s cognitive development as the result of collaboration with other, more experienced
people in a particular social setting?
A. Jean Piaget
B. Judy DeLoache
C. Lev Vygotsky
D. Eleanor Maccoby

68. Lev Vygotsky believed that children’s cognitive development was a product of
A. genetic predeterminism.
B. their individual explorations.
C. appropriate reinforcement and punishment.
D. learning from other, more competent people.
69. The set of skills and ideas that are just beyond a child’s level of competence, but can be mastered if that
child receives some help, are known as the zone of
A. proximal development.
B. distal development.
C. cephalocaudal development.
D. preoperational development.

70. When little Dylan is having trouble adding two-digit numbers, his teacher hints that maybe he needs to think
about how to carry numbers. With that hint, Dylan sees his error and begins to solve the problem correctly.
Adding two-digit numbers seems to be in Dylan’s zone of
A. proximal development.
B. distal development.
C. cephalocaudal development.
D. preoperational development.

71. When little Gwendolyn is having trouble adding two-digit numbers, her teacher hints that maybe she needs
to think about how to carry numbers. With that hint, Gwendolyn sees her error and begins to solve the problem
correctly. The teacher’s hint is a form of
A. the zone of proximal development.
B. positive reinforcement.
C. scaffolding.
D. inner speech.

72. Providing hints, clues, and appropriate learning opportunities for a child are forms of
A. the zone of proximal development.
B. positive reinforcement.
C. scaffolding.
D. inner speech.

73. Which quote best exemplifies the idea of scaffolding?

A. "I think I can. I think I can."
B. "Just do it."
C. "You can do it. We can help."
D. "Not now. Not ever."
74. All of the following behaviors demonstrate Barbara Rogoff’s concept of guided participation except
A. scaffolding.
B. participating in holiday celebrations.
C. listening to adults gossip.
D. taking apart a motor to see how it works.

75. According to Barbara Rogoff (2003), children learn their society’s values and practices through
A. accommodation.
B. guided participation.
C. symbolic representation.
D. centration.

76. Who believed that children develop language by creating mental representations?
A. Myrtle McGraw
B. Jean Piaget
C. B.F. Skinner
D. Lev Vygotsky

77. Who believed that children develop language in order to establish and maintain social contact?
A. Myrtle McGraw
B. Jean Piaget
C. B.F. Skinner
D. Lev Vygotsky

78. A baby points to its bottle and says, "Baaaa!" Her mother responds by saying, "Yes, that’s a bottle." The two
of them are engaging in
A. inner speech.
B. infant-directed speech.
C. social speech.
D. deferred imitation.

79. Piaget viewed language acquisition as

A. following the ability to mentally represent things.
B. the result of reinforcement.
C. an attempt to maintain social contact.
D. the first step into a child’s zone of proximal development.
80. Stacy is driving to her doctor’s office. As she drives, she tells herself such things as, "I need to turn left
here," and "Now, I’m looking for a blue building on the right." Stacy is engaging in
A. inner talk.
B. infant-directed speech.
C. social speech.
D. motherese.

81. Improvements in a child’s ability to focus her attention are due to the development of the
A. amygdala and hippocampus.
B. medulla and occipital lobe.
C. parietal lobe and Broca’s area.
D. prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.

82. One way to measure attention span is the

A. digit span task.
B. continuous performance task.
C. Stroop test.
D. Thematic Apperception Test.

83. The first stage of memory processing is

A. working memory.
B. long-term memory.
C. short-term memory.
D. sensory memory.

84. Sensory memory does which of the following?

A. Stores information for later retrieval
B. Encodes memory for immediate use or storage
C. Picks up information from the environment
D. Clears the memory to make room for new information

85. Working memory does which of the following?

A. Stores information for later retrieval
B. Encodes memory for immediate use or storage
C. Picks up information from the environment
D. Clears the memory to make room for new information
86. Long-term memory does which of the following?
A. Stores information for later retrieval
B. Encodes memory for immediate use or storage
C. Picks up information from the environment
D. Clears the memory to make room for new information

87. Information stored in long-term memory usually lasts for a

A. few minutes.
B. few days.
C. few months.
D. lifetime.

88. Ian and his mother are looking at family pictures. His mother asks him to find a picture of his cousin. Ian
will most likely use what type of strategy to find the right photograph?
A. Recall
B. Recognition
C. Reconciliation
D. Reciprocity

89. Leonardo’s father asks him the name of his favorite television show. To answer the question, Leonardo
would need to use which strategy to retrieve the information from his memory?
A. Recall
B. Recognition
C. Reconciliation
D. Reciprocity

90. Judith asks her daughter Sofia what happens at a fast food restaurant. Sofia tells her that you go in, stand in
line, look at the menu, ask for what you want, pay for it, get your food, sit down, eat, clean up, and leave. Sofia
has stored this information in
A. procedural memory.
B. episodic memory.
C. generic memory.
D. implicit memory.

91. When you remember what happened at your fifth birthday party, you are using
A. procedural memory.
B. episodic memory.
C. generic memory.
D. implicit memory.
92. Memory that consists of individual episodes that are personally meaningful and eventually become part of
the child's self-concept is __________ memory. Recall of such personally relevant episodes begins at age
__________.
A. autobiographical; 3
B. autobiographical; 4
C. generic; 2
D. generic; 3

93. Helping a child remember more about a specific incident is a form of

A. accommodation.
B. conservation.
C. preoperation.
D. scaffolding.

94. The average 2-year-old knows approximately how many words?

A. 50
B. 100
C. 200
D. 400

95. At what age, does the average child have a vocabulary of approximately 8,000–14,000 words?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6

96. What allows children to get a basic sense of a word’s meaning after only a few instances?
A. Telegraphic speech
B. Inner speech
C. Fast mapping
D. A theory of mind

97. Children who are between 18 and 36 months old create two-word sentences that psychologists call
A. morphology.
B. word linking.
C. telegraphic speech.
D. IM texting speech.
98. Little Amanda used telegraphic speech when she said,
A. "Amanda go stroller."
B. "Bottle!"
C. "Da da goo goo."
D. "Give dolly."

99. Children begin to create sentences using three words or more when they are approximately how many years
old?
A. 1?–2
B. 2?–3
C. 3?–4
D. 4?–5

100. The basic rules concerning word order are called

A. semantics.
B. pragmatics.
C. morphology.
D. syntax.

101. Children begin to construct words based on internalized rules of how language works when they are
approximately how many years old?
A. 2–3
B. 3–4
C. 4–5
D. 5–6

102. Overregulation is the

A. fact that children are afraid to talk until they are sure of what to say.
B. fact that some parents tend to correct children’s speech too often, harming their self-esteem.
C. cause of errors in children’s word use, based on their internalized rules of speech.
D. cause of emotional stress that traps children in the anal stage of development.

103. When children mistakenly construct words based on internalized rules, such as saying "mouses" instead of
"mice," the process is termed
A. syntax.
B. semantics.
C. morphology.
D. overregulation.
104. Which of the following terms refers to the meaning of words and sentences?
A. Syntax
B. Semantics
C. Morphology
D. Overregulation

105. As children acquire concepts, they become more adept at

A. syntax.
B. reversibility.
C. categorization.
D. conservation.

106. Young children's concepts are

A. both abstract and concrete.
B. not as advanced as Piaget believed.
C. limited to what they can see or touch.
D. driven by appearance.

107. Children can generally recite the alphabet and relate stories to their own experiences by the time they are
approximately how many years old?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6

108. Most children begin to enjoy rhyming and word play when they are approximately how many years old?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5

109. Even babies learn the difference between the ideas of more and less. This is the basic concept of
A. numbers.
B. counting.
C. magnitude.
D. addition.
110. The idea that anything can be counted is called the
A. stable order principle.
B. cardinality principle.
C. order irrelevance principle.
D. abstraction principle.

111. When little Martha discovers that she can count things beginning with any item as long as she only counts
them each once and is sure to count them all, she has mastered the
A. stable order principle.
B. cardinality principle.
C. order irrelevance principle.
D. abstraction principle.

112. Children seem to master the basic ideas of addition and subtraction when they are approximately how
many years old?
A. 1–2
B. 2–3
C. 3–4
D. 4–5

113. The argument that mathematical reasoning is biologically based is given credence by the fact that
A. wealthy children have higher math scores than poorer children.
B. mathematically-based games seem to promote the understanding of mathematical concepts.
C. good preschool programs can boost children’s mathematical abilities.
D. all children seem to develop basic mathematical thinking at an early age.

114. When investigating the structural quality of daycare facilities, researchers look at the
A. ratio of adults to children.
B. quality of adult-child interactions.
C. variety of stimulating toys and materials available.
D. number of children wandering aimlessly.

115. When evaluating the process quality of daycare facilities, researchers look at the
A. variety of stimulating activities and materials.
B. ratio of children to adults.
C. level of caregivers’ specialized training.
D. number of children in a classroom.
116. How did scores on standardized tests of memory and preacademic skills compare for children in in-home
care, daycare homes, and daycare centers?
A. Those of children in in-home care were the highest.
B. Those of children in daycare homes were the highest.
C. Those of children in daycare centers were the highest.
D. All were comparable.

117. Which of the following is a finding of the Head Start Impact Study that charted the progress of 3-year-olds,
in pre-reading skills and behavior, after one year in a Head Start program?
A. Their scores matched the national average, as did the incidence of their behavior problems.
B. Their scores were substantially higher than those of the control group, and they had fewer behavior
problems.
C. There was no improvement in their scores over those of the control group, but they had many fewer behavior
problems.
D. Their scores were better than those of the control group, but they had a greater incidence of behavior
problems.

118. Describe the development of fine motor skills in early childhood. Explain how both brain development and
experience contribute to this progression.

Fine motor skills are the small movements of the hands and fingers. Some milestones of fine motor skill
development include the following:
Age 2 – Build a tower of 6–7 blocks, turn the pages of a book, turn door knobs, untwist jar lids, wash and dry
hands, and display good use of eating utensils.
Age 2? – Build a tower of 8 blocks; hold a pencil or crayon between fingers.
Age 3 – Build a tower of 9–10 blocks, put on shoes and socks, button and unbutton clothing, and carry a
container without spilling the contents.
Age 4 – Dresses self (except tying laces), cuts with scissors, and washes and dries face.
Age 5 – Dresses without help, ties shoes, and prints simple letters.
Students should be able to describe the development of the brain in terms of plasticity, including the concepts of
synaptogenesis, myelination, and synaptic pruning in the better essays. Students should also discuss the
influence of experience in terms of practicing the specific skills to be learned and how this experience affects
changes in the brain and the developing child’s abilities.
119. Explain how elements from cases of child abuse and child neglect give us evidence for plasticity, or lack of
it, in children’s brains.

Long-term stress seems to cause relatively permanent changes in how children react to emotional displays. In
cases of physical or emotional abuse, children become far more sensitive to displays of anger than any other
emotions, and their reactions are adaptive in those settings. However, when the children are moved to more
caring settings, the reactions do not readily change, even though they are maladaptive in the new setting. This
seems to indicate that the parts of their brain that process emotions are forming neural pathways that help the
children adapt to their situations; however, once set for a long period of time, these pathways can be hard to
modify.
Information about children who have been emotionally neglected in early childhood also offers evidence of the
plasticity of the brain in early childhood. Children raised in "child warehouse"-like orphanages developed
difficulty identifying any emotions, even after they were adopted by responsive parents. The longer they were in
the orphanage, the harder it became for them to adapt to the later situation, showing that the neural pathways
had developed in the earlier, more sensitive period of early childhood.

120. Explain and give examples of the thinking processes of children in the preoperational period described by
Piaget. Discuss limitations on their thinking abilities, as well.

Piaget noted that children in the preoperational period were able to represent experiences and objects mentally
as images, words, or internalized activities. The best example of this is the development of language in the
preoperational period. Other examples are the uses of various objects to represent other things during pretend
play (such as a pot standing for a helmet, a garbage can lid for a shield, and a stick for a sword when a child is
pretending to be a knight). Piaget also noted that this growth of representational ability made it possible for
children to engage in deferred imitation. However, Piaget also defined the preoperational period in terms of
what children could not yet do. They don’t reason logically, cannot engage in reversibility, do not possess the
basic ideas of conservation of number, mass, or volume, are highly egocentric, and hold animistic beliefs about
inanimate objects.

121. Describe Lev Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development and how it explains children’s
cognitive development. Discuss the influence of language in your essay.

Lev Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the set of behaviors that lie between what a child can
do on her or his own and what she can do with some assistance. This may be illustrated with a Venn diagram,
showing a circle for the behaviors a child can do, overlapping partially a circle with behaviors she cannot do.
The overlapping zone is the ZPD. Children develop as they are helped to master skills and ideas in their ZPD,
which then expands outward to encompass new sets of behaviors and ideas that are just on the edge of the
children’s capacities. Cognitive development is the result of children’s interactions with more capable and
experienced people who can scaffold the ZPD’s tasks and experiences in ways that enable the children to master
them. Language is critical in two ways. First, it is important to be able to communicate with these more
experienced people so that the child can learn and develop. Second, the child (or the adult, in fact) will use
language internally (inner speech) to talk him- or herself through particular processes as he or she learns.
Test Bank for Life-Span Development Infancy Through Adulthood, 1st Edition: Steinberg

122. Explain how adults can encourage the development of literacy in children.

Some strategies might include a lot of parent-child communication, mostly centered on affirmations and
evocative questions, exposure to books and other reading materials, role modeling of reading behavior, reading
with children and asking them about the story lines and other features of the book, pointing out letter-sound
correspondences, playing language sound games, and encouraging children to write. Better answers will explain
how each of these might work and may give specific examples.

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