IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO.
2, APRIL 2005
A New Half-Cycle Phasor Estimation Algorithm
Tarlochan S. Sidhu, Fellow, IEEE, Xudong Zhang, and Vinayagam Balamourougan, Student Member, IEEE
Abstract—Phasor estimation algorithms for protective relaying
are required to filter out unwanted components from the input
signals and retain only the components of interest. The compo-
nents to be removed include harmonics and the decaying-exponen-
tial transient (dc offset) component. They affect the accuracy and
the speed of convergence of the phasor estimation algorithms to a
great extent. This paper presents a new technique, which effectively
removes the harmonics and the decaying dc component present
in the input signals, within half a cycle of the power system fre-
quency. This is achieved by means of a simple computational pro-
cedure using three off-line look-up tables. The proposed algorithm
has been tested for a wide variety of signals to assess its perfor-
mance. The performance is also compared with the two most pop-
ular half-cycle phasor estimation algorithms; the half-cycle least
error squares algorithms and the mimic plus half-cycle Fourier
algorithm. The test results show that the proposed relaying algo-
rithm has a faster convergence and better accuracy compared to
these previously proposed algorithms. The results also indicate that
the proposed algorithm converges to its final value within half a
cycle of the power system frequency as compared to the other two
algorithms, which take more than half a cycle to converge, when a
decaying dc component is present in the input.
Index Terms—DFT, digital filtering, least error squares algo-
rithm, mimic filters.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE RIGID interconnectivity existing among modern
power systems make them highly unstable when, faults
are not cleared rapidly. If a fault in an important transmission
line is not identified and removed at the shortest possible time,
it might lead to a widespread damage in the power system.
The job of the protective relays is to identify and isolate the
faults in power system networks. The unpredictable nature of
the power system signals during faults, make their extraction a
challenging job. In order to prevent the damages from spreading
to the healthy parts of the power system, the protective relaying
algorithms need to detect the faults within sub cycles of the
power system frequency. This makes the challenge even more
difficult, since, lesser data is provided to a digital filter to extract
the desired signal frequency.
For most relaying algorithms, the digital filters extract the
fundamental frequency signal. This needs to be done quickly
and accurately. The fault signal is normally composed of fun-
damental frequency component, harmonics and a decaying dc
component. The task of the digital filters is to extract only the
Manuscript received November 24, 2003; revised January 3, 2004. Paper no.
TPWRD-00590-2003.
T. S. Sidhu and V. Balamourougan are with the University of Western On-
tario, London, ON N6B 5A9, Canada (e-mail: sidhu@eng.uwo.ca; bvinayag@
uwo.ca).
Xudong Zhang was with University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6B
5A9, Canada, and is now with the Central China Electric Power Group Com-
pany, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2004.834677
0885-8977/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
1299
fundamental frequency signal by filtering all other unwanted
signals. The time constant and amplitude of the decaying dc
are unknown and are associated with the fault resistance, fault
position and the fault beginning time. The time constant of the
decay is generally determined by the X/R ratio (inductive reac-
tance to the resistance ratio) of the system. For high resistance
earth faults the decay rates are very high, sometimes less than
half the power system frequency cycle. Decaying dc is a non-
periodic signal and its frequency spectrum encompasses all fre-
quencies. The decaying dc component therefore, seriously af-
fects the accuracy and convergence of digital filter algorithms
such as Fourier, cosine, Walsh, Kalman and least-error-squares
(LES) filters [1]–[6]. Due to this, the estimated phasors using
these algorithms contain errors if decaying dc is present in the
input signal.
Phasor estimation algorithms can be divided into two cate-
gories: the full cycle algorithms and the half-cycle algorithms.
The full cycle algorithms typically take one power system cycle
to estimate the voltage or current phasor. These algorithms may
not be suitable for use in EHV/UHV system applications where
the decisions have to be taken in less than one cycle. The most
popular of the full cycle algorithms are the DFT algorithm and
the LES algorithm. Since the response speed is of paramount
importance, half-cycle algorithms or short window algorithms
have been proposed whose convergence speed to the final value
are faster than the full cycle algorithms. The two such important
half-cycle algorithms are the digital mimic filter [1] plus half-
cycle DFT and half-cycle LES algorithm. These half-cycle al-
gorithms suffer from some major disadvantages. The half-cycle
DFT filters cannot eliminate even numbered harmonics and the
decaying dc present during fault conditions, hence affecting the
accuracy and convergence. This leads to a large amount of error
in the estimated phasor of the current or voltage signal if those
harmonics are present in the input signal. To make these filters
insensitive to the decaying dc component, the input signals are
pre-processed by a digital mimic filter before being processed
by the half-cycle DFT filter. Mimic filter removes the decaying
dc if the time constant of the decaying dc is known before hand,
which is usually not the case in a real power system. In addition
to that, the mimic filter is susceptible to noise. In the half-cycle
least error squares technique, the decaying dc component is in-
cluded in its model. The decaying dc component can be mathe-
matically expressed by a Taylor series expansion. In the LES
technique, the first two terms of the Taylor series expansion
are used to model the decaying dc component. The least error
squares technique is then applied to estimate the fundamental
frequency phasor and other harmonics, provided they are mod-
eled in the technique.
Fig. 1 shows the frequency analysis of three decaying dc com-
ponents with different time constants. It can be seen that the
1300
Fig. 1. Frequency analysis of decaying dc signals of different time constants.
ratio of the lower frequency component to the higher frequency
components increases with the time constant. That is a faster
decaying dc has relatively lesser amount of low frequency com-
ponents than a slower decaying dc. Both the half-cycle filters
are sensitive to faster decaying rates affecting their accuracy
and convergence in a significant way. The reason being, in the
half-cycle LES filter, the first two terms of the Taylor series
alone are not sufficient to characterize a fast decaying dc signal.
From the above discussion it is clear that there is a need for
an accurate sub-cycle phasor estimation algorithm, which is im-
mune to harmonics and decaying-exponential transients. In this
paper, a new digital filtering technique, which eliminates har-
monics and decaying dc in the input signal by dynamically es-
timating the decay time constant is presented. It is found to be
accurate over a wide range of decay rates. This is achieved by
using a filtering technique to calculate decaying dc parameters.
The proposed technique is compared with the half-cycle LES
and the half-cycle DFT plus mimic filter techniques by means
of a performance index. This index is a measure of the conver-
gence of the algorithm based on the number of samples it takes
to reach the desired value. The performance index (PI) is de-
fined as
(1)
Generally, the conventional algorithms take more samples than
their window size to converge in the presence of decaying dc.
Ideally, the performance index should be zero.
II. THE PROPOSED TECHNIQUE
The current and voltage signals from the power system con-
tain some or all of the following components during a fault:
• Fundamental frequency component
• Harmonic components which are multiples of the funda-
mental frequency
• Decaying-exponential transient component and
• Noise.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 2, APRIL 2005
In digital relays these signals are passed through a low pass
anti-aliasing filter, which eliminates the high frequency compo-
nents in the signal. Since the fundamental frequency is generally
the frequency of interest, the cut off frequency of the low pass
filter is usually chosen well below half the sampling frequency.
For example, if the sampling frequency is taken as 3840 Hz, the
cut off frequency of the low pass filter according to Nyquist cri-
terion [7] should be equal to or less than half the sampling fre-
quency, 1920 Hz to prevent aliasing. If harmonics greater than
sixth harmonic are not needed in the relay, the cut off frequency
can be set below 360 Hz. This will substantially eliminate high
frequency noise present.
The proposed algorithm assumes that the input signal is pre-
processed by an analog anti-aliasing filter, which effectively re-
moves harmonics greater than the 6th harmonic in the input
signal. The proposed technique consists of two sets of orthog-
onal digital filters (Set I and Set II). Together they eliminate the
decaying-exponential transient and harmonic components and
extract only the fundamental frequency component of the signal.
It should be noted that each orthogonal filter set has a sine filter,
which estimates the real part of the phasor and a cosine filter,
which estimates the imaginary part of the phasor.
A. Orthogonal Filters
Orthogonal filters of filter Set I are tuned to extract fundamental
frequency component of the input signal. These filters should be
designed to eliminate harmonic components as well. These filters
are designed not to extract the decaying dc component in order
to have better frequency response at nonharmonic frequencies.
Therefore, when the input signal has a decaying dc component,
these filters will not eliminate it. So an error correction is needed
on the outputof these filters to get the correct phasor estimate. This
is achieved by using the orthogonal filter Set II.
Orthogonal filters of filter Set II are tuned to a very high fre-
quency. Let this be the th harmonic which is higher than the
cut off frequency of the low pass anti-aliasing filter but lesser
than half the sampling frequency. These filters are designed to
eliminate all harmonics lesser than the cut off frequency of the
low pass filter as well. Hence, these filters are only affected by
the decaying-exponential transient, since the low pass filter has
already eliminated the mth harmonic. From these filters, the pa-
rameters of the decaying dc can be estimated. Once the decaying
dc parameters are estimated from these filters, the decaying dc
component effect on orthogonal filter Set I can be eliminated.
This can be achieved by relating the outputs of the two sets of
filters. This is elaborated in the next section.
B. Look-Up Tables
The effect of decaying dc on the phasor calculated using or-
thogonal filters of filter Set I is removed by relating the out-
puts of the two orthogonal filter sets by means of creating three
look-up tables. These look-up tables are created off-line.
“Look-up Table I” (not to be confused with Table I) is cre-
ated from the outputs of the orthogonal filters of filter Set II.
The orthogonal filters of filter Set II are given an input of a pure
decaying dc with an initial magnitude of 1 pu and the time con-
stants varying from 1 ms to 100 ms. The ratios of the real part to
imaginary part of these filters for each time constant are stored
SIDHU et al.: A NEW HALF-CYCLE PHASOR ESTIMATION ALGORITHM 1301

in this look-up table. This ratio is fixed for a given time con-
stant, irrespective of the initial magnitude of the decaying dc.
This ratio can be expressed as,

(2)

where, is the ratio at a given time constant

is the output of the sine filter, which computes the real part of the
phasor defined at time constant is the output
of the cosine filter, which computes the imaginary part of the
phasor defined at time constant .
Look-up Tables II and III are created from the outputs of the
sine and cosine filters of filter Set I and II. The sine and co-
sine filters of the orthogonal filter Set I are given an input of a
pure decaying dc with an initial magnitude of 1 pu and the time
constants varying from 1 ms to 100 ms. The outputs of these
filters will give the real and imaginary parts due to the decaying
dcalone for each time constant. In look-up Table II the ratio of
the real part of filter I to the real part of the filter II is stored.
This ratio can be expressed as,

(3)

where, is the ratio at a given time constant

is the output of the sine filter of filter Set I, which computes the
real part of the phasor defined at time constant
is the output of the sine filter of the filter Set II, which computes
the real part of the phasor defined at time constant .
Similarly, look-up Table III is created, but with the imaginary
parts of the two filter sets for different time constants. This ratio
can be expressed as
Fig. 2. Schematic of the proposed filtering technique.
(4)

where, is the ratio at a given time constant
is the output of the cosine filter of filter Set I, which computes
the imaginary part of the phasor defined at time constant
is the output of the sine filter of filter Set II,
which computes the real part of the phasor defined at time
constant . The ratios and are also fixed for a given time
constant, irrespective of the initial magnitude of the decaying
dc. It is important to note that the orthogonal filters of filter
Set II contain only the effect of decaying dc in their outputs.
Once the output of these filters are known, the effect of the
decaying dc on the outputs of the filter Set I can be determined
from (3) and (4) with the help of the three look-up tables.
The next step is to use the look-up tables and perform error
correction on the output of filter Set I for obtaining the correct
phasor estimate.
C. Error Correction
The error correction procedure to estimate the correct phasor
is shown schematically in Fig. 2. The stepwise procedure is
given below:
• The low pass anti aliasing filter first filters the input signal,
• The filtered signal, is digitized and applied to
the two sets of the orthogonal filters. One set of filters is
tuned to the fundamental and the other set is tuned to the
mth harmonic.
• From the output of the orthogonal filter Set II, the ratio
of the real to imaginary part is determined during each
sampling interval.
• The time constant , corresponding to this ratio is obtained
from the look-up Table I.
• The ratios and corresponding to this time constant
are obtained from the look-up Tables II and III, respec-
tively.
• The real part of the decaying dc component can be calcu-
lated now from (3), since, the ratio and are
known for the time constant .
• The imaginary part of the decaying dc component simi-
larly can be calculated now from (4), since, the ratio
and are known for the time constant .
• The error correction is done, by subtracting the real and
imaginary component values of the decaying dc obtained
from the above step, from the respective real and imagi-
nary parts of the outputs of the orthogonal filter Set I. This
now leaves only the real and imaginary component of the
fundamental frequency phasor.
This way the decaying dc effect can be eliminated completely
from the estimated phasors irrespective of the time constant of
1302
the decaying dc component. The test results given in Section IV
demonstrate this quality.
D. Computations
The technique needs the following computations
1) Design of two sets of orthogonal filters
2) Creation of three look-up tables
3) Process the input signal using the two filters
4) Determine the time constant and the correction factors
from the look-up table.
5) Perform error correction using the corrections obtained
6) Estimate the phasor
The first two computations can be performed off-line and the
others can be performed on-line. With modern microprocessor
technology, the above-mentioned computations will not intro-
duce significant computational burden. The results prove that
the algorithm has a better performance in the time and frequency
domain. The details of which are given in Section IV.
The orthogonal filter Sets I and II can be any conventional
digital filters e.g., LES, DFT, Walsh functions, etc. In the next
section the proposed technique is implemented using least error
square filters.
E. Parameter Selection
The sampling frequency of the input signal, the cut-off fre-
quency of the low pass anti-aliasing filter and the center fre-
quency of the orthogonal filter Set II are three very important
parameters whose selection criterion is important for this algo-
rithm.
A higher sampling rate allows for a higher cut-off frequency
of the low-pass anti-aliasing filter and a better response. A
higher cut-off frequency for the low pass anti-aliasing filter
means more harmonics are present in the signal available to the
digital filters. If the orthogonal digital filters are designed using
LES technique, then the filters should be designed to eliminate
these harmonics. The frequency response of these filters at
off-nominal frequencies becomes worse if more components
are modeled in the design of the LES digital filters. For a higher
cut-off frequency for the low pass filter, the digital LES filters
provide poor noise suppression capability. For a better noise
rejection capability a lower cut-off frequency is needed for the
low pass anti-aliasing filter which means the response speed
is compromised. It is important to realize that the low pass
anti-aliasing filter is an essential element for all digital relaying
algorithms.
The selection of the center frequency for the orthogonal dig-
ital filter Set II depends on the cut-off frequency of the low
pass anti-aliasing filter. The center frequency should be chosen
well above the cut-off frequency of the low pass anti-aliasing
filter. The important criterion is that the center frequency signal
should not be present in the filtered input signal. A higher center
frequency allows a selection of higher cut-off frequency for the
low pass filter and better response speed.
In a way these parameters are interdependent and their selec-
tion depends on the compromise the designer is willing to make
for a particular application.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 2, APRIL 2005
Fig. 3. Frequency response of the orthogonal filters of filter Set I.
III. IMPLEMENTATION
The nominal frequency is taken as 60 Hz. The sampling fre-
quency of the input signal is assumed to be 3840 Hz. The data
window size is taken as half a cycle, which is 32 samples for
the sampling frequency of 3840 Hz. The low pass anti-aliasing
filter is chosen to be a 3rd order Butterworth filter with a cut-off
frequency at 180 Hz. A very low cut-off frequency is taken here
so that the digital filters can provide a better noise suppression
capability.
A. Orthogonal LES Filters I and II
The orthogonal filter Sets, I and II, explained in the previous
section are designed using the least error square principle. The
orthogonal filters of filter Set I are least error square filters de-
signed to extract the fundamental frequency and eliminate up to
the sixth harmonic. Conventionally, the decaying dc component
would have been included in the least error squares model. How-
ever, only the fundamental and the harmonics to be eliminated
are included in the model. The frequency responses of these fil-
ters are shown in Fig. 3. These filters have a better frequency
response at higher harmonics than the conventional half-cycle
LES filters where the decaying dc is modeled.
Orthogonal filters of filter Set II are also least error square
filters. They are tuned at 10th harmonic . The 10th
harmonic is chosen because the designed low pass anti-aliasing
filter completely eliminates 10th harmonic and the harmonics
above it effectively. This filter is designed to eliminate all
harmonics except the decaying dc. It should be noted that the
low pass anti-aliasing filter has already eliminated the 10th har-
monic. Therefore, the output would be only due to a decaying
dc component. The frequency response of these filters is shown
in Fig. 4.
B. Look-Up Tables I, II, and III
In order to build the look-up Table I, the orthogonal filters of
filter Set II are given an input of a decaying dc signal of different
time constants. The ratios of the real part to imaginary part of
these filters for each time constant are stored in this look-up
table. This ratio is fixed for a given time constant, irrespective of
the initial magnitude of the decaying dc. The plot of this ratio,
for different time constant is shown in Fig. 5.
SIDHU et al.: A NEW HALF-CYCLE PHASOR ESTIMATION ALGORITHM
Fig. 4. Frequency response of the orthogonal filters of filter Set II.
Fig. 5. Ratio of the outputs of the real to the imaginary parts of the outputs of
the orthogonal filters of filter set I for different time constants.
Fig. 6. Ratio of the outputs of the real and the imaginary parts of the outputs
of the orthogonal filters of filter Set I and II for different time constants.
Look-up Tables II and III are designed as outlined in Section
II. The plots of and for different time constants are
shown in Fig. 6. Figs. 5 and 6 are specific to the LES filters
discussed here.
To estimate the phasors as explained in Section II, these three
look-up tables are utilized to negate the effect of the decaying
dc on the fundamental frequency phasor. In the next section the
performance of the proposed algorithm for different time con-
stants of the input signal is evaluated by comparing it with the
1303
performances of the half-cycle LES and mimic plus half-cycle
DFT algorithms.
IV. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
As mentioned before the sampling rate is chosen at 64 sam-
ples per cycle. The input signal taken for analyzing the perfor-
mance is expressed as
(5)
The time domain response of the algorithm is analyzed for
the response speed and convergence. The time constant of the
decaying dc varies depending on the system configuration at the
fault moment, fault location and the fault resistance. Therefore
the sensitivity of the algorithm to variation of is studied. The
time constants are represented in terms of number of cycles. The
time constants considered for testing are, 0.5, 2, and 5 cycles of
the nominal frequency. The magnitude of , the decaying dc
offset and , the magnitude of the fundamental component is
set to 1 pu.
The conventional LES algorithm is designed to eliminate all
harmonic components up to 6th and the decaying dc component
is modeled by the first two terms of the Taylor series expansion.
The mimic filter is redesigned every time to suit the selected
time constants of 0.5, 2, and 5 cycles of the nominal frequency
while testing the algorithms.
Fig. 7(a)–(c) show the time domain response for the proposed
half-cycle algorithm, half-cycle LES and mimic plus half-cycle
DFT. It can be seen from the Fig. 7 that the proposed algorithm
exhibits a faster convergence to the desired value within half
a cycle compared to the other two half-cycle algorithms. For a
time constant of 0.5 cycles the proposed algorithm converges to
the final value within half a cycle, whereas the half-cycle LES
takes close to 1.75 cycles to converge to its final value. The
mimic plus DFT performance is the worst as the oscillations
continue even after two cycles. For fast decaying rates it can be
concluded that the proposed algorithm has a better convergence
and speed compared to the other two algorithms.
Table I (not to be confused with look-up Table I) gives the
performance index of the algorithms for different time constants
as defined by (1). The performance index is a measure of the
speed of convergence of the algorithms to the desired value.
From Table I it is evident that the accuracy and speed of conver-
gence of the proposed algorithm is much better than the other
two half-cycle algorithms.
To provide a clear picture of the performances of the algo-
rithms over a wide range of decay rates of the decaying-ex-
ponential transient, additional simulation results are shown in
Fig. 8(a) and (b). Fig. 8(a) and (b) show the magnitude of the
estimated phasor after the data window is completely filled with
fault samples, which is at the end of one half-cycle. It can be seen
that the proposed algorithm converges to the expected value for
all time constants as opposed to the other two algorithms. The
conventional half-cycle LES reaches the desired value at the
end of half-cycle only for time constants above 45 ms, whereas
the mimic plus half-cycle DFT does not converge to its desired
value within half a cycle for most of the selected time constant
range.
1304
Fig. 7. Time domain response of the proposed algorithm, half-cycle LES and
mimic plus DFT algorithms for different time constants (a) Time constant (0.5
cycles) (b) Time constant (2 cycles) (c) Time constant (5 cycles).
TABLE I
PERFORMANCE INDEX OF THE ALGORITHMS
It is important to note that the mimic plus half cycle DFT
does not eliminate even harmonics. This means errors will be
introduced in the phasor estimate if the input signal has even
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 2, APRIL 2005
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8. (a) Output of the half-cycle LES and proposed algorithm when the
data window is completely filled with fault data. (b) Output of the mimic plus
half-cycle DFT and proposed algorithms when the data window is completely
filled with fault data.
harmonic components. The proposed algorithm and the half-
cycle LES are designed to eliminate even harmonics.
All of the above results clearly indicate that the proposed al-
gorithm has a better convergence and accuracy compared to the
other half-cycle algorithms, the half-cycle LES and the mimic
plus half-cycle DFT
A. Frequency Response
In this section, the focus is on the frequency responses of the
proposed filters. This shows the response of the filters to dif-
ferent frequency components and off nominal frequency com-
ponents. The proposed filter response is compared with the other
two filters, half-cycle LES and mimic plus half-cycle DFT al-
gorithms. Each filter has two parts, the sine filter and the cosine
filter. Fig. 9(a) and (b) show the frequency responses of these fil-
ters. Fig. 9(a) shows the cosine filter frequency response of these
algorithms. The cosine filter of the proposed algorithm has a
better frequency response compared to the other two algorithms
as it is less sensitive to the off nominal frequency components.
Fig. 9(b) shows the sine filter frequency response of these al-
gorithms. The sine filter of the proposed algorithm has a much
better frequency response characteristics compared to the half-
cycle LES and mimic plus DFT. The mimic plus half-cycle DFT
is susceptible to even harmonic components, as it is evident from
its frequency response characteristics. The noise suppression ca-
pability of the proposed algorithm is much better than the other
SIDHU et al.: A NEW HALF-CYCLE PHASOR ESTIMATION ALGORITHM
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9. (a) Frequency responses of cosine filters. (b) Frequency responses of
sine filters.
two algorithms, which is evident from the frequency response
characteristics shown in Fig. 9.
V. CONCLUSION
A new algorithm for estimating phasors, which is immune to
decaying-exponential transient and harmonics, is proposed in
this paper. The proposed technique computes the phasors within
half-cycle of the power system frequency. The proposed filtering
technique is implemented by using LES filters. The technique
needs three look-up tables, which are built off-line, to remove
the decaying-exponential transient effect from the input signal.
The performance of the algorithm is compared with half-cycle
LES and mimic plus half-cycle DFT. The results show that the
proposed algorithm is faster and more accurate than the other
two half-cycle algorithms in the presence decaying dc.
1305
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Univ. Press, 2001.
Tarlochan S. Sidhu (M’90–SM’94–F’04) received the B.E. (with honors) de-
gree from Punjabi University, Patiala, India, in 1979 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D.
degrees from the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, in 1985
and 1989, respectively.
He previously worked for the Regional Computer Center, Chandigarh, India,
the Punjab State Electricity Board, India, and Bell-Northern Research Ltd., Ot-
tawa, ON, Canada. From July 1990 to June 2002, he was a Faculty Member in
the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, where
he served as Professor and Graduate Chair of the Department. At present, he
is Chair of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Pro-
fessor and Hydro One Chair in Power Systems Engineering at the University of
Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada. His areas of research interest are power
system protection, monitoring and control.
Dr. Sidhu is a Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (U.K.) and the
Institution of Engineers (India). He is also a Registered Professional Engineer
in the Province of Ontario and a Chartered Engineer in the U.K.
Xudong Zhang received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from Xi’an Jiaotong Uni-
versity, Xi’an, China, in 1993 and 1996, respectively, and the M.Sc. degree from
the University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada, in 2003.
Currently, he is an Electrical Engineer with the Central China Electric Power
Group Company, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
Vinayagam Balamourougan (S’03) received the B.Tech. degree from the
Pondicherry Engineering College, Pondicherry, India, in 1997, the M.Sc.
degree in electrical engineering from the University of Saskatchewan, Saska-
toon, SK, Canada, in 2002, and is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in the
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Western
Ontario, London, ON, Canada.
He was an Application Engineer in the Protection Engineering Department
with ALSTOM Ltd., Chennai, India, from 1997–2000. His research interests
are power system protection and control, substation automation, power system
dynamics, and flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS).