16.

INTEGRATION

𝑑 $
(𝑥 + 6) = 2𝑥
Defining Integration
Integration is defined as the reverse process of 𝑑𝑥
differentiation. When we differentiate a function, the
𝑑 $
result is called the differential. When we integrate a (𝑥 − 4) = 2𝑥
function, the result is called the integral or the 𝑑𝑥
antiderivative.
The integral of 2𝑥 can be any of the functions:
𝑥$ + 0
Notation
𝑥 $ + 6,
The symbol for integration is ò and the term or 𝑥 $ − 4 or in general
expression that is to be integrated is called the 𝑥 $ + some constant.
integrand. If the integrand is, say, a function of x, In fact, the integral of 2𝑥 can be represented by a
then we must integrate with respect to x and this is family of curves and not a definite curve. Let us
written as, examine the graphs of these curves.

∫ f (x)dx
The integrand can be a function in any variable and
so we can have integrands such as

∫ f (r)dr ∫ g(t)dt ∫ h(θ )dθ

Law of integration
To derive the law of integration, we are interested in
deriving a rule for the reverse process of
differentiation. Recall the rule for differentiation:
d n
( x ) = nx n -1
dx

To differentiate x n , multiply by n and decrease the

power n by 1.
To integrate x n , increase the power n by 1 and
divide by the new power, n+1.

The law of integration can now be formally stated.

We can deduce that
xn + 1 ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 $ + 𝐶, where C is a constant to be
òx
n
dx = + C , where C is the constant of determined.
n +1
Since the result of this integral is dependent on the
integration and n ¹ -1 .
value of C, we refer to integrals such as these as
indefinite integrals. At a later stage, we explain how
The constant of Integration
to evaluate this constant in a given situation.
When we differentiate any constant, the result is zero.
Consider the following family of functions and their
We noted earlier that the differential of a constant is
derivatives.
𝑑 $
zero, we can also conclude that the integral of zero is
(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 a constant.
𝑑𝑥
The integral 𝒙0𝟏 The integral of ax
n

The fundamental law of integration is not applicable When we have a coefficient of x n other than 1, we
to the integrand of 𝒙0𝟏 . This is the one case when the can move it to outside the integral sign and integrate
rule, shown above, cannot be applied, that is, the as usual. However, the coefficient need not
exception to the law. necessarily be moved to attain the desired result. For
If we tried to apply the law to, ∫ 𝑥 02 , we would example, we may choose any one of the following
ways to handle coefficients.
x -1 + 1 x0 1
obtain +C = +C = +C .
-1 + 1 0 0
∫ 6x dx = 6 ∫ x 3 dx 6x 3 + 1
3

∫ 6x
3
dx = +C
This result is undefined or tends to infinity. So, we 3+ 1
can see that the law is inapplicable for 𝑛 = −1. x4
= 6. +C 6x 4

4 = +C
1 4
4
When we have to integrate with respect to x, we x 3x 4
x =3 +C = +C
2 2
obtain the following result.
1
ò x dx = ln x + C , where C is a constant. The integral of 𝑎𝑥 9 is defined as follows:

ò ax dx = a ò x n dx , where a is a constant
n
Since we can only find the log of a positive value, x
has a modulus sign. Note also that ln is really loge.

Integration of 𝒙𝒏 and 𝒂𝒙𝒏

Example 3
Just as in differentiation, if an expression is not in the 3
form that is conformable to the use of the law of
∫4 x
dx

integration, we use algebraic techniques to express it

in such a form. Solution
3 3
Example 1 ò4 x
dx = ò 1
dx
2
4x
1
∫ x 3 dx 3 - 12 3 -1
= ò x dx = ò x 2 dx
4 4
1
- +1 1
Solution 3 x 2 æ3 2ö
= . + C = ç ´ ÷ x2 + C
1 4 - 1 +1 è4 1ø
dx = ∫ x dx The law of integration can now
−3
∫x 3 2
be applied. 3
= x + C (where C is a constant)
x −3 + 1 x −2 2
∫ x dx =
−3
+C = +C
−3+ 1 −2
1 Integrating a sum
= − 2 + C (where C is a constant) When the integrand is composed of more than one
2x
term, it must be written within brackets. Each term is
to be integrated individually and then the constant of
Example 2
integration is added on in the final result.
∫ x dx

ò (5x + 8 x ) dx º ò 5 x 2 dx + ò 8 x dx
2

Solution
5 x3 8 x 2 5 x3
1
1
+1
3 = + +C = + 4x2 + C
x 2
x 2 3 2 3
∫ x dx = ∫ x dx =
2
1
2
+1
+C = 3
2
+C
(where C is constant)
2 3
= x + C (where C is a constant)
3
The integral of a constant, k Solution
To evaluate ∫ k dx . We
0
write kx = k because We expand the integrand to get:
ò ( 3x - 1)( x + 4 ) dx = ò ( 3x + 11x - 4 ) dx
2

x 0 = 1 . So,
We proceed to integrate each term separately.
∫ 4 dx = ∫ 4x
0
dx
x0 + 1
∫ (3x −1)( x + 4) dx = ∫ (3x +11x − 4 dx )
2
=4 + C = 4x + C (where C is a constant)
0 +1
3x 3 11x 2
= + − 4x + C
Example 4 3 2
1 11
∫ − 2 dx = x 3 + x 2 − 4x + C (where C is a constant)
2

Solution Example 7
1 1 0 æ 4 x 3 - 3x ö
∫ − 2 dx = ∫ − 2 x dx ò çè ÷ dx
x ø
1 x0 + 1 1
=− + C = − x + C (where C is a constant)
2 0 +1 2
Solution
We can now deduce, that when A is a constant, then
We divide each term by x, to get:
æ 4 x 3 - 3x ö æ 4 x 3 3x ö
ò A dx = Ax + C (C is a constant) ò çè x ÷ø dx º ò çè x - x ÷ø dx
= ò ( 4 x 2 - 3) dx
Integral of products and quotients
We do not have a product rule or a quotient for 4 x3
= - 3x + C (where C is a constant)
integration. In simple cases involving these 3
situations, we apply the distributive law to remove The integral of ( ax + b )
n

the brackets and convert the expression to a sum of

n
terms. To find ∫ ( 2x + 3) dx , when n = 2, we may choose
to expand as was done in the examples above.
Example 5
As n becomes larger, say 3 or greater, the expansion
ò x ( 3x - 4 ) dx
2
will result in many terms and integration can become
tedious. In such cases, the method of substitution is
very helpful.
Solution
ò ( ax + b )
n
First, we expand the integrand to get dx

ò x ( 3x - 4 ) dx = ò (3x - 4x ) dx
2 3 2
dt dt
Let t = ax + b =a dx =
Now we integrate each term separately: dx a
n dt tn +1
∴ ∫ ( ax + b) dx ≡ ∫ t n . = +C
a ( n + 1) a
∫ x (3x − 4) dx = ∫ (3x )
− 4x 2 dx
2 3

3x 4 4x 3 Re-substituting for t, we get the following rule:

= − + C (where C is a constant)
4 3
n +1
( ax + b )
ò ( ax + b )
n
dx = + C (where C is a constant)
Example 6 ( n + 1) a
ò (3x - 1)( x + 4 ) dx
We can apply the above rule in evaluating the Using integration to find the equation of a
integral of functions of the form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)9 as curve
illustrated in the following examples.
We can use integration to find the equation of a curve
Example 8 when we know its gradient function and one point on
10
the curve. The point will help us to find the numerical
∫ ( 2x − 1) dx
value of the constant of integration.

Solution Example 16
dy
The gradient function, , of a curve is given by
dx
6 x 2 + 6 x - 5 Find the equation of the curve if the
point ( 2, 12 ) lies on the curve.
Example 9

∫ 4x −1 dx Solution
The equation of the curve will be
Solution
y = ò ( 6 x 2 + 6 x - 5) dx
1

∫ 4x − 1 dx ≡ ∫ 4x − 1( ) 2 dx
y=
6x3 6x2
+ - 5 x + C (where C is a constant)
1 3 2
In this example, a = 4, b = -1 and n = .
2 y = 2 x 3 + 3x 2 - 5 x + C
1 3
+1

∴∫ 4x − 1 dx =
( 4x − 1) 2
+C=
( 4x − 1) 2
+C
Since ( 2, 12 ) lies on the curve, then the value of C,
⎛1 ⎞ 6 can be found by substituting x = 2 and y = 12
⎜⎝ 2 + 1⎟⎠ × 4
3 2

=
1 3
( 4x − 1) + C (where C is a constant) () () ()
12 = 2 2 + 3 2 − 5 2 + C = 16 + 12 − 10 + C
6 12 = 18 + C
Example 10
C = −6
1
∫ 3
2x − 1
dx \ The equation of the curve is,
y = 2 x 3 + 3x 2 - 5 x - 6 .
Solution
1
1 − Indefinite and definite integrals
∫ 3
2x − 1
dx ≡ ∫ 2x − 1 ( ) 3 dx

All the integration examples done so far are examples

1 of what is referred to as indefinite integrals. The
Using the formula, a = 2, b = −1 and n = − , we
3 results were written in terms of the variable together
have with the constant of integration added on.

òx
n
−
1
+1
2 For example, an integral such as dx =
1 ( 2x + 1 ) 2x + 1 3
3
( )
∫ 3
2x − 1
dx =
⎛ 1 ⎞
+C=
4
+C
xn + 1
⎜⎝ − 3 + 1⎟⎠ × 2 3 n +1
+ C is said to be of indefinite value.

⎛ 2⎞ As we shall explain in a later chapter on the meaning

⎝
(
3⎜ 3 2x + 1 ⎟
⎠
) of integration, indefinite integrals cannot be
= + C (where C is a constant)
4 evaluated and are non-numerical in nature.
We can, however, evaluate a definite integral but we Example 12
must be given the limits that define the integral. We 1

do so by using the constants, a and b, called the upper

Evaluate ò ( 2 x - 3) dx .
-1

limit and the lower limit respectively.

Solution
a 1
When an integral is written as, ò x n dx , it can be 1 é 2 x2 ù
b
ò -1 ( 2 x - 3) dx = êë 2 - 3x + C úû
evaluated to give a numerical value and is said to be a -1

definite integral. = ⎡⎣ x 2 − 3x + C ⎤⎦
1

3 −1
In ò x n dx , 3 is the upper limit and 1 is the lower
limit.
1
{( ) 2
( )} {( ) ( )}
= 1 − 3 −1 − −1 − 3 −1
2

= (1− 3) − (1+ 3) = −2 − 4 = −6
b
Example 13
To evaluate ò a
x n dx , the procedure is as follows:
3
ò ( 2 x - 1)
4
1. We first find the indefinite integral and which Evaluate dx
-1
is an expression in x.
2. Write the integral using square brackets and Solution
place the limits, written in the same order, on Using the formula, a = 2, b = −1 and n = 4
the outside of the outer square bracket.
5
3. Substitute x = b the upper limit, in the ( 2 x - 1)
ò ( 2 x - 1)
4
integral. dx = +C
10
4. Substitute x = a the lower limit, in the
3
integral. ⎡ 2x − 1 5 ⎤
3 4
2x − 1 dx = ⎢ ⎥
( )
5. Subtract the value obtained in step 4 from the ∫ ( −1
) ⎢ 10 ⎥
value obtained in step 3. The numerical result ⎣ ⎦ −1
is the definite integral. 5 5

=
( 2(3) − 1) − ( 2( −1) − 1)
10 10
5 5
Example 11
=
(5) − ( −3) =
3125 243
+
2
10 10 10 10
ò
2
Evaluate x dx .
1
3368 4
= = 336 units
10 5
Solution
2
2 ⎡ x3 ⎤ Example 14
∫ x 2 dx = ⎢ + C ⎥ (where C is a constant) 2
⎣3 ⎦1 ò
1
Evaluate 4 x + 1 dx .
0
⎛ 2 () ⎞ ⎛ 13
⎞ ()
3

=⎜ + C⎟ − ⎜ + C⎟
⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ Solution
1

⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
= ⎜ 2 + C⎟ − ⎜ + C⎟ = 2
1 ò 4 x + 1 dx º ò ( 4 x + 1) 2 dx
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ 3
1
+1
(4x + 1) 2
Notice that the constant of integration cancels off in a ∴∫ 4x + 1 dx = +C
⎛1 ⎞
definite integral and so it may be excluded in the 4 ⎜ + 1⎟
⎝2 ⎠
evaluation. It is considered good practice, though, to 3
write it in the step immediately following the (4x + 1) 2 (4x + 1)3
= +C = +C
integration and omit it afterwards. 6 6
 ⎡
2 The integral of trigonometric functions
( 4x + 1) ⎤⎥ = ⎛⎜ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 3 3
2
4x + 1 dx = ⎢
(9) ⎟ −⎜ (1)
⎟ We already know the differential of the basic
∫ 0 ⎢ 6 ⎥ ⎜ 6 ⎟ ⎜ 6 ⎟ trigonometric functions, so we can state their
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ 0 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
integrals as follows.
27 1 26 1
= − = = 4 units
6 6 6 3
ò cos x dx = sin x + C
Rules involving definite integrals ; sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
If f ( x ) is continuous (the graph runs continuously) where C is a constant
in the interval [a, c] , the following rules are used
Example 6
when evaluation definite integrals.
ò cos 2x dx
a b
ò b
f ( x ) dx = - ò f ( x ) dx
a
Solution
c b c dt
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
a a b
Let t = 2 x,
dx
=2

dt sin t
\ ò cos 2 x dx = ò cos t = + C [C is a constant]
(where b lies between a and c) 2 2
1
The examples, shown below, give an illustration of ò cos 2x dx = 2 sin 2 x + C
these rules.
Example 7
; 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 1
We can illustrate that ∫ 1
3x dx = − ∫ 2
3x dx
2
2 ⎡ 3x 2 ⎤
∫ 1 3x dx = ⎢⎣ 2 + C ⎥⎦ Solution
JK
Let 𝑡 = 3𝑥, =3
1

⎛3 2 2⎞ ⎛3 1 2⎞ JL
=⎜
()
⎟ −⎜
3
⎟ = 6− = 4
1 ()
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 2 2 𝑑𝑡 cos 𝑡
∴ ; sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ; sin 𝑡 =− +𝐶
1 3 3
1 ⎡ 3x 2 ⎤
∫ 2 3x dx = ⎢⎣ 2 + C ⎥⎦ 1
; sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 3𝑥 + 𝐶
2

⎛3 1 2
⎞ ⎛3 2 ⎞ 3 2 3
=⎜
() ⎟ −⎜
()
⎟ = − 6 = −4
1
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 2 2
We can, therefore, state the following:
2 4 4
Similarly, ∫ 3x dx + ∫ 3x dx = ∫ 3x dx 1
; sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
1 2 1
$
3𝑥 $
=
3𝑥 = $ $ 𝑎
; 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ; 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] 2+[ ]
2 $ 2 2 $
1
3(2)$ 3(1)$ 3(4)$ 3(2)$ ; cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
=( − )+( − ) 𝑎
2 2 2 2
3 1 1
= (6 − ) + (24 − 6) = 4 + 18 = 22
2 2 2
4 2 2
4 ⎡ 3x ⎤
2
3( ) ()
4 3 1 3 1
∫ 1 3x dx = ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ = 2 − 2 = 24 − 2 = 22 2 Example 8
1 p
1
Evaluate ò 0
2
sin x dx .
2
Solution
1 dt 1
Let t = x , =
2 dx 2
1
\ ò sin x dx = ò sin t . 2dt
2
1
= - ( cos t ) 2 + C = -2cos x + C
2
p
p
1 é 1 ù2 æ pö
ò 0
2
sin x dx = ê -2cos x ú = ç -2cos ÷ - ( -2cos 0 )
2 ë 2 û0 è 4ø
æ 1 ö 2 2 2
= ç -2 ´ ÷ - ( -2 ´ 1) = 2 - = 2- ´ = 2- 2
è 2ø 2 2 2

Example 9
2
Evaluate, ò 1
sin ( 3p x ) dx .

Solution
dt
Let t = 3p x = 3p
dx
dt
\ ò sin ( 3p x ) dx = ò sin t
3p
- cos t
= +C
3p
cos 3p x
=- +C
3p
2
2 é cos 3p x ù
ò 1
sin ( 3p x ) dx = ê -
ë 3p úû 1
æ cos 3p ( 2 ) ö æ cos 3p (1) ö
= ç- ÷-ç- ÷
è 3p ø è 3p ø
1
= ( - cos 6p + cos 3p )
3p
1 2
= ( - (1) + ( -1) ) = - (exact)
3p 3p