TOPIC 1

MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

DEFINITION
International relations is a separate discipline that deals with the study of foreign affairs and global
issues among states of the world, non-state organizations, international organizations, war and peace,
disarmament, alliance formation, terrorism and the whole international system.

DEFINITION BY PROMINENT SCHOLARS

Palmer and Perkins

“the study of relation of states with each other and with international organizations and certain sub-
national entities.”

Hans J. Morgenthau
“the struggle for power and the search for order in an anarchic world.”

Quincy Wright
“The processes by which international political systems are created, maintained and transformed.”

Jackson and Sorensen

“the study of the interaction between various actors that participate in international politics, including
state, non-state actors and international organization.”

Goldstein
“it is a field of study and practice, which involves the analysis of the relations and interaction among state
as well as non-state actors, at the international level.”

NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

 Definition
Nature refers to the characteristics of that subject.

 Changing Nature of International Relations

The nature of international relations is dynamic. It is constantly evolving in response to changing
circumstances, global events, in power and emerging challenges.
The end of Cold War in the early 1990s led to a dramatic shift in the global balance of power. The United
States emerged as the world’s sole superpower, which reshaped international relations.
Economically growing Asian countries such as China, India and Singapore are all significantly growing
world politics, So it is clear that international politics is moving towards multi-polar again.

 As an Interdisciplinary Study
International relations is an inter-disciplinary field of study in which other disciplines of social science such
as history, economics, political science, philosophy, geography, culture etc. are interconnected.

 State as a Primary Actor

State possess high degree of sovereignty which means they have the supreme authority within their own
borders. They can make decisions about domestic and foreign policies without external interference.

 Power Dynamics
Power is a central concept in international relations. State use various form of power including military,
economics, diplomatic and soft power to advance their interests and influence others.
Russia wields its military and energy resources to assert its influence in Eastern Europe, the Middle East,
and other regions. It has used military force in Ukraine and Syria and engages in cyber operations to
influence world politics.

 Protection of National Interest

The protection of national interest is the main goal of the state. With this goal in mind the state engages in
relations with other states, and the national power of the state will be able to satisfy its national interest.

 Continuous Interaction among Nations

Countries are increasingly interdependent in today’s globalized world. They rely on each other for trade,
resources, technology and security. Economic and political actions in one country can have far-reaching
consequence for others.

SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The scope of international relations (IR) is broad and encompasses a wide range of topics, issues, and areas
of study.

 State-to-State Relations
The state often prioritize their own national interests, which can include can include economic prosperity,
territorial integrity, national security, and the well-being of their citizens.

 Role of Non-State Actors

Non-state actors contribute to international relations by adding diverse perspectives, expertise, and resources
to global issues. They can both complement and challenge the actions of states and intergovernmental
organizations, shaping the direction of international politics and diplomacy.

 Question of War and Peace

War and peace in international relations are maintained through a combination of diplomatic efforts,
international institutions, and military deterrence.
International organizations like the United Nations (UN) provide forums for dispute resolution and
peacekeeping missions.
Additionally, military deterrence, as demonstrated during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet
Union, can discourage aggression.
In today's world, a combination of diplomatic negotiations, international cooperation, and military
capabilities is essential to maintaining peace and preventing conflicts from escalating into full-scale wars.

 Study of Foreign Policy

International relations play a pivotal role in shaping a state's foreign policy decisions, as states navigate a
complex and interconnected global system with various interests, challenges, and opportunities.
A real-life example is the United States' foreign policy shift following the 9/11 terrorist attacks in 2001. In
response to the attacks by non-state actor (Al-Qaeda), the U.S. adopted a proactive foreign policy approach,
including military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq, demonstrating how external events can lead to
significant shifts in a country's foreign policy priorities and actions.

 Role of International Organizations

International organizations play a crucial role in international relations by providing forums for diplomacy,
facilitating cooperation among member states, and addressing global challenges. These organizations serve
as platforms for negotiations, conflict resolution, and the development of international norms and standards.
One prominent example is the United Nations (UN), which works to maintain peace and security, promote
human rights, and coordinate international responses to crises.
Another example is the World Trade Organization (WTO), which regulates global trade and resolves trade
disputes.
Additionally, international organizations like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation focus on global health,
poverty reduction, and education, contributing to development and addressing pressing global issues outside
traditional diplomatic channels.
 Discussion on Global Environmental Issues
Discussions on global environmental issues are a central component of international relations as nations
grapple with shared challenges. The Paris Agreement, signed in 2015, exemplifies this. In this landmark
accord, nearly 200 countries committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change.
The agreement represents a collective effort in international relations to address an urgent global
environmental issue, emphasizing cooperation, diplomacy, and shared responsibility. It showcases how
states can come together to mitigate the impacts of climate change, highlighting the interdependence of
nations and the need for coordinated action on a global scale.

 Role of People
People, as citizens and activists, play a crucial role in international relations by influencing their
governments' policies and participating in global issues. An illustrative example is the global climate change
movement led by youth activists like Greta Thunberg. Through grassroots mobilization and international
climate strikes, they have pressured governments worldwide to take more ambitious steps to combat climate
change and push for stronger international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement. This demonstrates how
ordinary individuals can have a significant impact on shaping the global agenda and influencing state
behavior in international relations.

Role of the Third World

IMPORTANCE AND PURPOSE OF STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Studying international relations is of paramount importance in today's interconnected world. It serves
several crucial purposes and offers numerous benefits:

1. Understanding Global Dynamics: International relations helps individuals and policymakers

comprehend the complex dynamics of the global system. This understanding is essential for navigating an
interconnected world, where actions in one part of the world can have far-reaching consequences elsewhere.

2. Promoting Peace and Conflict Resolution: A central goal of international relations is to prevent and
resolve conflicts. By studying the causes and dynamics of conflicts, students and policymakers can develop
strategies to promote peace and stability.

3. Effective Diplomacy: Diplomacy is a cornerstone of international relations. Learning about diplomacy

and negotiation processes is essential for resolving disputes, forging alliances, and advancing national
interests through peaceful means.
4. Global Governance and Cooperation: International relations explores how states cooperate to address
global challenges, such as climate change, terrorism, and pandemics. Understanding international
organizations and treaties is critical for effective global governance.

5. National Security: A comprehensive understanding of international relations is vital for national security.
Policymakers must assess potential threats, develop defense strategies, and engage in intelligence and
counter-terrorism efforts to protect their countries.

6. Economic Prosperity: International trade and economic relations are central to the prosperity of nations.
Studying international relations provides insights into trade policies, economic cooperation, and global
market dynamics.

7. Humanitarian Aid and Development: International relations is crucial for addressing humanitarian
crises and promoting global development. Students and policymakers learn how to provide aid, alleviate
suffering, and support sustainable development initiatives.

8. Cultural Understanding: Understanding different cultures and societies is essential for effective
diplomacy and cooperation. Studying international relations fosters cultural sensitivity and promotes cross-
cultural understanding.

9. Preventing Human Rights Abuses: The study of international relations sheds light on human rights
abuses worldwide. Advocacy and policy efforts to prevent such abuses rely on knowledge of international
norms and legal frameworks.

10. Career Opportunities: International relations offers a wide range of career opportunities in
government, diplomacy, international organizations, academia, journalism, non-governmental organizations,
and the private sector. Graduates can contribute to diplomacy, peacebuilding, development, and global
problem-solving.

11. Informed Citizenship: An understanding of international relations empowers individuals to be

informed and engaged global citizens. It enables them to critically analyze world events, participate in
debates on foreign policy, and make informed voting decisions.

12. Addressing Global Challenges: Studying international relations equips individuals with the knowledge
and skills to tackle pressing global challenges, from climate change and migration to global health crises.
In summary, the study of international relations is essential for comprehending the complexities of the
modern world, promoting peace and cooperation, and addressing global challenges. It offers individuals the
tools and knowledge to engage effectively in international affairs and make meaningful contributions to
global well-being and security.
 TOPIC 2
THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

REALISM
Definition
Realism is a straightforward approach to international relations, stating that all nations are working to
increase their own power. It suggests that states act in their own best interest to maximize their power and
security.
Explanation
 Realism assumes that states are the primary actors in international relations and that their actions are
motivated by self-interest.
 The theory states that a nation’s foremost interest should be self-preservation and that continually
gaining power should always be a social, economic and political imperative.
 The nature of realism implies that seeking a moral high ground is a goal that governments can not
always achieve and that dishonesty and violence can be highly effective tools for advancing national
interests.
China-North Korea’s Relation
From a realist perspective, China's international relations with North Korea can be understood primarily as
driven by its self-interest and security concerns. China, as a regional power, seeks to maintain stability along
its northeastern border and prevent any situation that might threaten its own security or lead to instability in
the region. Thus, China has historically provided diplomatic and economic support to North Korea as a
buffer state, preventing the collapse of the North Korean regime, which could result in a unified, pro-
Western Korea on its border. This support has often been seen as a means to ensure a divided Korea, thus
maintaining a strategic balance and limiting the influence of the United States and its allies in the region.
While China's relationship with North Korea may not always align with its interests or values, the realist
perspective emphasizes the importance of power and self-interest in shaping international relations, and in
this case, China's approach to North Korea can be seen as a strategic move to safeguard its own security and
influence in Northeast Asia.
Russia-Syria Relations
From a realist perspective, Russia's international relations with Syria can be understood primarily in terms of
self-interest and power dynamics. Russia's support for the Syrian government, led by President Bashar al-
Assad, is driven by a combination of strategic, geopolitical, and economic considerations. Russia has
maintained a naval base in the Syrian port of Tartus, which is its only warm-water naval facility in the
Mediterranean, giving it valuable access to the region. Additionally, Russia seeks to assert its influence in
the Middle East, counterbalance Western influence, and maintain a foothold in a volatile region. Moscow's
support for Assad, despite international criticism, underscores its prioritization of stability and state-centric
interests over humanitarian concerns. Realism highlights how Russia's actions in Syria are motivated by a
desire to protect its own security, project power, and maximize its influence in the anarchic international
system, even if it means supporting an authoritarian regime.

LIBERALISM
Definition
Liberalism is a theoretical perspective and approach that emphasizes cooperation, institutions, and the
promotion of democratic values.
Explanation
 Liberalism is also known as liberal internationalism.
 Liberalism places a strong emphasis on individual and collective rights, freedoms and the rule of law.
These principles extend beyond domestic borders and promoted in the international arena.
 Liberalists believe that states can achieve peace and prosperity through diplomacy, economic
interdependence, and the spread of democratic principles.
 Liberals favor multilateral approaches to international problem-solving, where multiple states work
together through negotiation and diplomacy to address global challenges.
 They advocate for international organizations like the United Nations and prioritize human rights and
global governance.
Canada’s Liberalist Approach
Canada is a vocal advocate for human rights on the global stage. It has been actively involved in
condemning human rights violations in places like Myanmar, China and Syria. It has also been actively
involved in peacekeeping missions under the auspices of UN. Canada also has a history of welcoming
refugees and immigrants and maintain a liberal approach to refugee resettlement. Canada also actively
supports educational and cultural exchange, and global health initiatives. Their principles guide its
diplomatic efforts and shapes its contributions to addressing global challenges and promoting a more
inclusive and just international order.
Norway’s Liberalist Approach
Norway is known for its active involvement in conflict mediation and peacebuilding efforts around the
world. The Oslo Accords, which facilitated negotiations between Israel and Palestine, is a notable example
of Norway’s diplomatic engagement in conflict resolution. Norway is one of the largest per capita
contributor to foreign aid and humanitarian assistance in the world. It provides substantial funding for
international development projects, poverty alleviation and humanitarian relief efforts, particularly through
organizations like the United Nations and NGOs. Liberal approach is deeply rooted in Norway’s
commitment to values such as human rights, democracy, and global cooperation. These principles guide its
diplomacy and foreign policy decisions, making Norway an influential and respected actor in addressing
global challenges and promoting a more inclusive and sustainable international order.
Comparison Realism Liberalism
Liberals have a more optimistic view
Realists tend to have a pessimistic of human nature, believing that
view of human nature, assuming that cooperation, diplomacy and the
View of Human Nature
states are primarily motivated by self- promotion of values such as democracy
interest and the pursuit of power. and human rights can influence state
behavior.
Liberals consider not only states but
Realists focus on the role of states as also non-state actors, international
the primary actors in international organizations, and transnational actors
Primary Actors relations. They see states as unitary, as important participants in
rational actors pursuing their own international politics. They emphasize
interest. the influence of international
institutions and civil society.
Realist emphasize the inevitability of Liberals stress the role of international
conflict and competition in institutions and agreements in fostering
Conflict vs. international system. They see power cooperation and reducing the risk of
Cooperation struggles and security dilemmas as conflict. They believe that these
fundamental features of international institutions can help shape state
relations. behavior and promote norms and rules.
Liberals emphasize the protection of
Realists prioritize state security and
human rights and the promotion of
survival above all else. They may be
Security vs Human ethical principles in international
willing to compromise on human
Rights relations, sometimes advocating for
rights and ethical considerations to
humanitarian interventions to prevent
achieve their security objectives.
human right abuses.
Liberals often subscribe to the
Realism does not inherently connect
democratic peace theory, which posits
democracy and peace. Realists argue
that democracies tend not to go to war
Democracy and Peace that states act in their own self-
with each other. They see the spread of
interest, regardless of their political
democracy as a pathway to
system.
international peace.

CONSTRUCTIVISM
Definition
Constructivism is a theoretical perspective in international relations that emphasizes the role of ideas, norms,
culture, identities, and social interactions in shaping the behavior of states and other international actors.
Explanation
 Constructivism argues that the ideas and beliefs held by states and individuals are critical in shaping
their actions on the international stage.
 It contends that states and actors construct their identities and interest based on social interaction and
cultural context.
 It argues that states and actors can exercise power not only through coercion but also through the
dissemination of ideas and shaping of international discourses.
 It also contends that international relations are not static but evolve over time as ideas and norms
change. States can adapt to new norms and identities, leading to shifts in their foreign policy behavior.
Examples
 Germany
Germany employs a constructivist approach in its international relations for several reasons, reflecting
its historical experiences, normative values, and strategic interests. Germany's history, particularly in the
aftermath of World War II, has deeply influenced its approach to international relations. After the war,
Germany was divided into East and West, and the horrors of the war and the Holocaust led to a
collective commitment to peace, reconciliation, and the prevention of further conflicts. This historical
experience fostered a strong normative commitment to diplomacy and multilateralism. German deploys
its armed forces outside of German borders only when its government is certain of the need to intervene
in instances of conflicts that threatens to spill over into other nations.
 New Zealand
New Zealand utilizes a constructivist approach in its international relations due to a combination of
historical factors, national identity, and normative values. New Zealand's nuclear-free status and
opposition to nuclear weapons are integral to its constructivist approach. This stance underscores its
commitment to nuclear disarmament as a global norm.

CAPITALISM
Definition
Capitalism, as an economic and social system, plays a significant role in shaping international relations.
Capitalism is characterized by private ownership of the means of production, profit maximization, market
competition, and the pursuit of self-interest. In the context of international relations, capitalism influences
various aspects of global politics and interactions among states.
Explanation
 Capitalism fosters economic interdependence among countries. International trade, driven by capitalist
principles, leads to the exchange of goods and services across borders. States engage in trade to access
resources, expand markets, and maximize economic growth.
 Capitalism is closely associated with globalization, the increasing inter-connectedness of economies,
cultures, and societies worldwide. Capitalist principles drive the flow of goods, information, and capital
across borders, contributing to the spread of technology, culture, and ideas on a global scale.
 Capitalist economies are characterized by the presence of multinational corporations (MNCs) that
operate in multiple countries. These MNCs can have a significant impact on international relations by
influencing states' policies, economies, and even foreign policy decisions.
 Capitalism's competitive nature can lead to economic rivalries and trade disputes among states.
Competition for resources, markets, and investment opportunities can sometimes lead to conflicts, both
economic and political.
 Capitalism can contribute to economic inequality within and between countries. This inequality can
have political consequences and shape international relations by influencing issues like migration, aid,
and development assistance.
 Capitalist countries often seek foreign investment opportunities and engage in economic partnerships
with other nations. Investment flows, both inward and outward, can affect a country's foreign policy and
international relations.

 The pursuit of profit and access to resources can drive competition and conflict over commodities like
energy, minerals, and water resources. These resource-related tensions can have international
implications.
 Capitalist states may use economic tools such as sanctions and trade restrictions to advance their
interests or punish perceived adversaries. These measures can have significant international
repercussions and affect diplomatic relations.
Examples
 Japan's economy is characterized by capitalist principles, and Japanese corporations like Toyota, Sony,
and Panasonic are global leaders in various industries. Japan engages in international trade and
investment, promoting its economic interests abroad.
 South Korea has a highly developed capitalist economy with global corporations like Samsung and
Hyundai. The South Korean government promotes trade and investment abroad and seeks to expand its
economic influence globally.
 Singapore is often regarded as one of the most capitalist economies in the world. It actively promotes
free trade and foreign investment, positioning itself as a global hub for finance, logistics, and trade.
MARXISM
Definition
Marxism is a theoretical perspective to international relations that believes capitalist structure of
international system should be dismantled by replacing private property with cooperative ownership, placing
the emphasis entirely on satisfying human needs for consumption, rather than creating private profit.
Explanation
 Marxists contend that powerful capitalist states, driven by economic interests, engage in imperialistic
practices to exploit resources and labor in less developed countries.
 It asserts that underdeveloped countries are structurally dependent on developed countries due to the
global capitalist system. This dependence economic inequality and uneven development in the
international system.
 It underscores how competition for access to resources, markets, and labor can lead to conflicts between
states. These conflicts can manifest in economic exploitation, trade disputes or even armed conflict.
 Example
International Trade Union Confederation, International Labor Organization and many other labor unions
and movements advocate for safe working conditions, job security and fair wages for workers in
respective industries on global scale.

FEMINISM
Definition
Feminism is a theoretical perspective that seeks to analyze and understand international politics through the
lens of gender and gender-related issues.
Explanation
 Feminist scholars argue that gender is a crucial factor in shaping power dynamics, security policies,
conflict resolution and international cooperation.
 Feminism examines how traditional gender roles affect the behavior of states, international
organizations, and individuals in the international arena.
 Feminists advocate for the protection of women’s rights, both domestically and internationally. They
argue that women’s security is a vital component of global security and that addressing issues such as
gender-based violence and discrimination is essential for promoting peace and stability.
 #MeToo Movement
While primarily a social movement, #MeToo has had international implications. It has drawn attention
to sexual harassment and assault in various contexts, including within international organizations and
the humanitarian sector. The movement has prompted discussions about power dynamics and gender-
based discrimination in international workplaces.
 UN Women
 Established in 2010, UN Women is a specialized United Nations agency focused on gender equality and
women's empowerment. It advocates for gender-responsive policies, supports initiatives to end violence
against women, and promotes women's participation in political processes worldwide.
 Noble Peace Prize Laureate
Several Nobel Peace Prize laureates have been recognized for their work in advancing women's rights
and peace efforts. For example, Malala Yousafzai, awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2014, is known for
her advocacy for girls' education and gender equality.