PSCM 3139: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

PROF. TETCHIE AQUINO

WRITTEN REPORT
ON THE VIETNAM WAR

Submitted by:

CARL NARAISO
MA. LIXE ALEZANDRA MORENO
XIANNE KAYE POLINAR

September 1, 2023
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE COLD WAR........................................................................................................................... 3

THE DOMINO THEORY................................................................................................................ 4
END OF FRENCH RULE IN VIETNAM.........................................................................................5
Reasons for Vietminh victory:.................................................................................................. 7
1954 GENEVA ACCORDS............................................................................................................7
U.S. INVOLVEMENT ON VIETNAM WAR.................................................................................... 9
❖ The Arrogance of Power..................................................................................................... 9
❖ Bureaucratic Politics..........................................................................................................10
❖ Domestic Politics............................................................................................................... 11
❖ Imperialism........................................................................................................................ 11
❖ Men making pragmatic hard choices.................................................................................11
❖ Balance of power politics.................................................................................................. 12
❖ The Slippery Slope............................................................................................................12
❖ Anti-Communism...............................................................................................................12
INVOLVEMENT UNDER EISENHOWER (1953-1961)............................................................... 13
INVOLVEMENT UNDER KENNEDY (1961-1963)...................................................................... 13
INVOLVEMENT UNDER JOHNSON (1963-1969)......................................................................14
➢ OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER (1965)...................................................................... 15
➢ SEARCH AND DESTROY................................................................................................ 15
➢ 1968 TET-OFFENSIVE..................................................................................................... 16
INVOLVEMENT UNDER NIXON (1969-1974)............................................................................ 17
➢ NIXON’S MADMAN THEORY...........................................................................................17
➢ THE GIST OF THE 1ST TET OFFENSIVE WAR............................................................. 17
➢ VIETNAMIZATION............................................................................................................ 18
➢ LIBERATION FROM THE WAR........................................................................................ 19
➢ TEMPORARY INVASION OF CAMBODIA....................................................................... 20
➢ PARIS PEACE ACCORDS (1973).................................................................................... 20
➢ FALL OF SAIGON AND REUNIFICATION (1975)............................................................ 22
VIETNAM AFTER THE WAR...................................................................................................... 23
➢ THE CRISIS OF THE BOAT PEOPLE..............................................................................24
➢ WAR RETURNS TO INDOCHINA.................................................................................... 26
➢ ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL PROBLEMS GROW.........................................................27
➢ THE DOI MOI ECONOMIC REFORMS............................................................................ 28
➢ VIETNAM RESUMES DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES............ 29
➢ VIETNAM TODAY............................................................................................................. 30

2
 VIETNAM WAR (1954-1975)

THE COLD WAR

➢ The Cold War was a period of tension between the USA and USSR that began after
World War II. The two countries had different beliefs about government and economics:
the US was capitalist while the USSR was communist. The USSR, or the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, was a socialist state that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was
commonly known as the Soviet Union. The USSR was a federation of multiple Soviet
republics, with Russia being the largest and most prominent among them.Key aspects of
USSR’s ideology and structure are (1) Socialism, (2) Single-party Rule, (3) Planned
Economy, and (4) Collectivization and Industrialization. On the opposite side, the United
States has a democratic and federal system of government. It uphold ideologies and
structures of (1) Liberal Democracy, (2) Constitutional Framework, (3) Separation of
Powers, (4) Federalism, (5) Rule of Law, (6) Capitalist Economy, (7) Individual Liberties,
(8) Civic Participation, and (9) Cultural Pluralism.1

➢ Americans, accustomed to strict separation of powers, are particularly struck by the lack
of such separation in the Russian political system. Every organ of the Soviet
administration, from the humblest soviet in town or village to the Council of People’s
Commissars, exercises both executive and legislative powers and may issue decrees
binding on the citizens. Lack of separation of powers, however, creates little confusion in
practice, since the entire machinery of government is subordinated to the single control
of the Communist Party. That party has a role of dominance over the state for which
there is no parallel in the United States or the countries of western Europe.2

THE DOMINO THEORY

➢ After 1945, American involvement in Vietnam was driven and shaped by the Cold War.
American foreign policy was largely shaped by the Truman Doctrine. Outlined in 1947,
the Truman Doctrine argued that communism must be contained and governments

1
“Cold War | Summary, Causes, History, Years, Timeline, & Facts | Britannica.” In Encyclopædia Britannica, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War.

2
How Is Russia Governed? | AHA.” 2023. Historians.org. 2023.https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-me
mbership/aha-history-and-archives/gi-roundtable-series/pamphlets/em-46-our-russian-ally-(1945)/how-is-russia-gover
ned.
3
 susceptible to communist infiltration and takeover should be assisted. If this did not
occur, communism would expand its global reach, taking root in one nation before
jumping to its neighbors (the Domino Theory).

This was particularly relevant in Asia, where national governments were weaker and
borders were poorly controlled. Asian nations, it was believed, had a lower capacity for
resisting communist infiltration and invasion. Having spread from China to North Korea,
American planners believed that communism would continue its movement further south
to nations like Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, Malayasia, and Indonesia. If
these countries fell then communists would rule more than one-quarter of the globe –
from East Germany to the shores of the Pacific Ocean.3

END OF FRENCH RULE IN VIETNAM

➢ Vietnam had been a French colony from the late 1800's to 1954 which formed part of a
French colony called French ‘Indochina’ comprising the territories of Vietnam, Laos, and
Cambodia. The term Indochina refers to the intermingling of Indian and Chinese
influences in the culture of the region.4

➢ The French at first promised to recognize the new government as a free state but failed
to do so. On November 23, 1946, at least 6,000 Vietnamese civilians were killed in a
French naval bombardment of the port city of Haiphong, and the first Indochina War
began. After the 2nd world war, a guerilla force called Vietminh or League for the
Independence of Vietnam ushered the struggle for Vietnamese independence from

French rule led by Ho Chi Minh, who happened to be a communist. Since it was

impossible for the Viet Minh to win large-scale battles against the French; they could not
withstand French artillery or match French air support or supply lines. Instead, the Viet
Minh sought to avoid decisive battles and withdraw to the countryside, jungles and
mountains. There they established bases in areas too remote for the French to attack.

When ready, Viet Minh soldiers would be deployed to launch surprise attacks, ambushes
and raids on weaker French positions (while avoiding full-scale battles). Their aim was to
prolong the war while inflicting casualties on French soldiers and damage to French

3
History, Alpha. 2019. “US Involvement in Vietnam.” Vietnam War. June 19, 2019.
https://alphahistory.com/vietnamwar/us-involvement-in-vietnam/#:~:text=French%20forces%20in%20Vietnam%20wer
e,Dien%20Bien%20Phu%20(1954)..
4
“Pentagon Papers | Summary, Case, Vietnam War, & Facts | Britannica.” 2023. In Encyclopædia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pentagon-Papers.

4
 resources. The intention was to make the war costly and unpopular back in France.
Eventually, French forces would be weakened enough for the Viet Minh to engage them
in a decisive battle.5

The Viet Minh's guerilla tactics were influenced by Marxist-Leninist principles, with a
focus on mobilizing the peasantry and rural populations for support. Over time, the Viet
Minh's military capabilities and organizational strength grew, eventually leading to larger
conventional battles. They were the strongest guerilla force in the north of Vietnam who
fought against France for independence. 6

➢ Since the United States was anti-communist, it supported the French against Ho Chi
Minh of North Vietnam. By 1951, US military aid to the French had tripled to $450 million.
By 1953, it was up to $785 million. French forces in Vietnam were using ships and
aircraft on loan from the US. CIA agents were conducting covert operations in Vietnam in
support of the French, like carrying out 700 supply drops to CEFEO troops trapped at
Dien Bien Phu (1954).7

➢ The Battle of Dien Bien Phu began in mid-March and ended in early May 1954. when
French forces, who had been rapidly losing ground to the popularly supported Viet Minh,
occupied the town of Dien Bien Phu in an attempt to cut the nationalist supply lines into
Laos and to maintain a base for forays against enemy forces. Although the Vietnamese
quickly cut all the roads into Dien Bien Phu, making it suppliable only by air, the French
were confident of their position. They were thus taken by surprise when the Viet Minh
Gen. Vo Nguyen Giap surrounded the base with 40,000 men and used heavy artillery to
break the French lines.8

Despite heavy U.S. aid, France was officially defeated at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954.
With French forces in disarray after the battle, the French government sought an end to
the fighting; an official settlement was negotiated at an international conference in
Geneva. The French sense of national humiliation, particularly acute within the army,

5
History, Alpha. 2019. “The First Indochina War.” Vietnam War. June 13, 2019.
https://alphahistory.com/vietnamwar/first-indochina-war/.
6
“Viet Minh | History & Definition | Britannica.” 2023. In Encyclopædia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Viet-Minh.
7
History, Alpha. 2019. “US Involvement in Vietnam.” Vietnam War. June 19, 2019.
https://alphahistory.com/vietnamwar/us-involvement-in-vietnam/#:~:text=French%20forces%20in%20Vietnam%20wer
e,Dien%20Bien%20Phu%20(1954).
8
“Battle of Dien Bien Phu | History, Outcome, & Legacy | Britannica.” 2023. In Encyclopædia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Dien-Bien-Phu.

5
 had lasting repercussions on French public opinion and contributed—along with later
events in Algeria—to the downfall of the Fourth Republic in 1958.9 In the end, of the
16,000 French troops, fewer than 100 broke through the siege at Dien Bien Phu, with the
rest killed, wounded, or captured. The defeat was a complete rout for the French.10

Reasons for Vietminh victory:11

❖ Strategic Planning: General Vo Nguyen Giap, the commander of the Viet Minh
forces, meticulously planned the battle. He strategically encircled and isolated the
French garrison at Dien Bien Phu, cutting off their supply lines and isolating them
from reinforcements.

❖ Local support: The Viet Minh had the support of local populations, which
provided them with valuable intelligence, labor, and logistical assistance. This
local support helped the Viet Minh sustain their operations and maintain their
secrecy.

❖ China’s support: China provided significant support to the Viet Minh forces led
by General Vo Nguyen Giap in their struggle against the French colonial forces.
China's contribution was primarily in the form of supplies, logistics, and
diplomatic support.

❖ Tactical Adaptations: The Viet Minh employed innovative tactics suited to the
terrain, using a combination of trench warfare, tunnel systems, and sophisticated
anti-aircraft and anti-tank strategies. They utilized their knowledge of the local
geography and climate to their advantage.

❖ Unity and Motivation: The Viet Minh forces were united by a common cause:
national independence from colonial rule. This strong motivation and sense of
purpose boosted the morale and determination of the soldiers.
9
“Battle of Dien Bien Phu | History, Outcome, & Legacy | Britannica.” 2023. In Encyclopædia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Dien-Bien-Phu.

10
“The Lessons of Dien Bien Phu.” 2017. Hoover Institution. 2017.
https://www.hoover.org/research/lessons-dien-bien-phu.

11
“An Analysis of the French Defeat at Dien Bien Phu.” 2023. Mst.edu. 2023.
https://web.mst.edu/~rogersda/umrcourses/ge342/Miltary%20Geo%20Presentations/Bill%20Louie/DBP/The%20Fren
ch%20Defeat.htm.

6
 ❖ Logistical Ingenuity: Despite facing challenges in terms of supplies and
resources, the Viet Minh managed to sustain their forces through creative
logistical strategies. They used bicycles, porters, and hidden supply routes to
keep their troops fed and equipped.

1954 GENEVA ACCORDS

➢ The Geneva Accords refers to a set of agreements reached in 1954 at the Geneva
Conference, which was convened to address the ongoing conflict in Indochina,
particularly the First Indochina War between the French colonial forces and the Viet
Minh. The conference took place in Geneva, Switzerland, and involved representatives
from various countries, including the United States, the Soviet Union, China, France, and
several Asian nations.12

The Geneva Accords consisted of several key components:13

❖ Temporary Division of Vietnam: The Accords stipulated that Vietnam would be

temporarily divided at the 17th parallel into two separate zones: the northern
zone controlled by the Viet Minh and the southern zone controlled by
anti-communist forces aligned with France. This division was intended to be
temporary and was intended to provide time for elections to be held to determine
the country's future.

❖ Elections and Reunification: The Accords called for nationwide elections to be

held in 1956 to determine the political future of Vietnam. These elections were to
be supervised by an international commission. The goal was to allow the
Vietnamese people to choose whether to reunify the country under a single
government.

❖ Withdrawal of Foreign Troops: The Accords stipulated that all foreign troops
were to be withdrawn from Vietnam. French forces were to withdraw from the

12
“Viet Minh | History & Definition | Britannica.” 2023. In Encyclopædia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Viet-Minh.
13
History, Alpha. 2019. “The Geneva Accords of 1954.” Vietnam War. June 15, 2019.
https://alphahistory.com/vietnamwar/geneva-accords-of-1954/.

7
 northern zone, and Viet Minh forces were to withdraw from the southern zone.
This was aimed at creating a neutral zone to prevent further hostilities.

❖ Laos and Cambodia: The Geneva Accords also addressed the situations in Laos
and Cambodia, resulting in both countries being granted independence. The
Accords recognized the sovereignty and neutrality of Laos and Cambodia.

❖ International Supervision: The Accords established the International Control

Commission (ICC) to oversee the implementation of the agreements and monitor
the situation in Vietnam. The ICC was composed of representatives from
Canada, India, and Poland.

➢ The Geneva Accords marked a significant turning point in the Indochina conflict. While
the agreements were meant to provide a framework for a peaceful resolution, they did
not lead to lasting peace. The elections scheduled for 1956 were never held due to
various political and ideological factors, and the division between North and South
Vietnam continued to deepen. This eventually led to the Vietnam War, with the United
States becoming increasingly involved in supporting the anti-communist government in
South Vietnam against the communist forces of North Vietnam.14

U.S. INVOLVEMENT ON VIETNAM WAR15

➢ Reasons (According to Dr. Leslie Gelb from Brookings Institute who served as the
Chairman of the Vietnam Task Force in the Department of Defense which prepared the
Pentagon history of the war):

❖ The Arrogance of Power: This view holds that a driving force in American
envelopment in Vietnam was the fact that the US is a nation of enormous power
and like comparable nations in history, it would seek to use this power at every
opportunity.

To have power Is to want to employ it, to be corrupted by it. The arrogance

derives from the belief that to have power is to be able to do anything. Power
invokes right and justifies itself. Vietnam was there, a challenge to this power and

14
“Timeline Details | Vietnam War Commemoration.” 2013. Vietnamwar50th.com. 2013.
https://www.vietnamwar50th.com/1945-1964_the_road_to_war/Geneva-Accords-and-the-Division-of-Vietnam/.
15
U.S. Government Publishing Office, “Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Relations United States Senate:Causes,
Origins, and Lessons of the Vietnam War,” GovInfo, May 9, 1972,
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-92shrg83605/pdf/CHRG-92shrg83605.pdf.
8
 an opportunity for its exercise, and no task was beyond accomplishment. There
can be no doubt about this strain in the behavior of other great powers and in the
American character. But this is not a universal law.

Great powers, and especially the United States have demonstrated self-restraint.
The arrogance of power had more to do with the US's persistence in the war than
with its initial involvement. It always was difficult for leaders back in Washington
and for operatives in the field to believe that American resources and ingenuity
could not devise some way to overcome the adversary

❖ Bureaucratic Politics: There are two, not mutually exclusive, approaches within
this view. One has it that national security bureaucrats (the professionals who
make up the military services, civilian Defense, AID, State, and the CIA) are
afflicted with the curse of machismo, the need to assert and prove manhood and
toughness. Career advancement and acceptability within the bureaucracy
depended on showing that you were not afraid to propose the use of force. [next
slide] The other approach has it that bureaucrats purposefully misled their
superiors about the situation in Vietnam and carefully constructed policy
alternatives so as to circumscribe their superiors, those forcing further
involvement in Vietnam.

The machismo phenomenon is not unknown in the bureaucracy. It was difficult, if

not damaging, to careers to appear conciliatory or “soft”. Similarly, the
constriction of options is a well-known bureaucratic device. But, I think, these
approaches unduly emphasize the degree to which the President and his
immediate advisers were trapped by the bureaucrats. The President was always
in a position to ask for new options or to exclude certain others. The role of the
bureaucracy was much more central to shaping the programs or the means used
to fight the war than the key decisions to make the commitments in the first place.

9
❖ Domestic Politics: This view is quite complicated, and authors argue their case
on several different levels. The variants are if you were responsible for losing
Vietnam to communism, you would: (a) lose the next election and lose the White
House in particular; (b) jeopardize your domestic legislative program, your
influence in general, by having to defend yourself constantly against political
attack ; (c) invite the return of a McCarthyite right-wing reaction; and (d) risk
undermining domestic support for a continuing U.S. role abroad, in turn, risking
dangerous probes by Russia and China.

There can be no doubt, despite the lack of supporting evidence in the Pentagon
Papers, about the importance of domestic political considerations in both the
initial commitment to and the subsequent increase in US involvement. Officials
are reluctant, for obvious reasons, to put these considerations down in writing,
and scholars therefore learn too little about them. It should also be noted that
domestic political factors played a key part in shaping the manner in which the
war was fought—no reserve call-ups, certain limitations on bombing targeting,
paying for the war, and the like.

❖ Imperialism: This explanation is a variant of the domestic politics explanation.

Proponents of this view argue that special interest groups maneuvered the
United States into the war. Their goal was to capture export markets and natural
resources at public expense for private economic gain. The evidence put forward
to support this “devil theory” has not been persuasive. Certain groups do gain
economically from wars, but their power to drive our political system into war
tends to be exaggerated and over-dramatized.

❖ Men making pragmatic hard choices: This is the view that US leaders over the
years were not men who were inspired by any particular ideology, but were
pragmatists weighing the evidence and looking at each problem on its merits.
According to this perspective, US leaders knew they were facing tough choices,
and their decisions were always close ones. But having decided 51 to 49 to go
ahead, they tried to sell and implement their policies one hundred percent.

This view cannot be dismissed out-of-hand. Most US leaders, and especially

Presidents, occupied centrist political positions. But Vietnam is a case where
practical politicians allowed an anti-communist worldview to get the best of them.

10
❖ Balance of power politics: Intimately related to the pragmatic explanations is the
conception which often accompanies pragmatism—the desire to maintain some
perceived balance-of-power among nations. The principal considerations in
pursuing this goal were: seeing that “the illegal use of force” is not allowed to
succeed, honoring commitments, and keeping credibility with allies and potential
adversaries. The underlying judgment was that failure to stop aggression in one
place would tempt others to aggress in ever more dangerous places.

These represent the words and arguments most commonly and persuasively
used in the executive branch, the Congress, and elsewhere. They seemed
commonsensical and prudential. Most Americans were prepared to stretch their
meaning to Vietnam. No doubt many believed these arguments on their own
merits, but in most cases, the broader tenet of anti-communism made them
convincing.

❖ The Slippery Slope: According to this view, Vietnam was not always critical to
U.S. national security. It became so over the years as each succeeding
administration piled commitment on commitment. Each administration sort of slid
further into the Vietnam quagmire, not really understanding the depth of the
problems in Vietnam and convinced that it could win. The catchwords of this view
are optimism and inadvertence. It was not necessary for US leaders to believe
they were going to win. It was sufficient for them to believe that they could not
afford to lose Vietnam to communism.

❖ Anti-Communism: The analysts who offer this explanation hold that

anti-communism was the central and all-pervasive fact of U.S. foreign policy from
at least 1947 until the end of the sixties. After World War II, an ideology whose
very existence seemed to threaten basic American values had combined with the
national force of first Russia and then China. This combination of ideology and
power brought our leaders to see the world in “we-they” terms and to insist that
peace was indivisible. Going well beyond the balance of power considerations,
every piece of territory became critical, and every besieged nation, a potential
domino.

Communism came to be seen as an infection to be quarantined rather than a

force to be judiciously and appropriately balanced. Vietnam, in particular, became
the cockpit of confrontation between the ‘‘Free World” and Totalitarianism; it was
where the action was for 20 years. Anti-communism was the principal reason for

11
 United States involvement in Vietnam. It is not the whole story, but it is the
biggest part.

INVOLVEMENT UNDER EISENHOWER (1953-1961)

➢ In 1954, the French suffered a catastrophic defeat at Dien Bien Phu, bringing their
colonial reign to an end. Some U.S. officials had pushed for air strikes, including the
possible use of nuclear weapons, to save the French position. But Dwight D.
Eisenhower, who succeeded Truman, demurred, refusing to involve the United States in
another major conflict so soon after the Korean War. “I am convinced that no military
victory is possible in that kind of theater,” the president wrote in his diary. Yet because
Eisenhower subscribed to the “domino theory,” which held that if one country fell to
communism then its neighbors would follow, he refused to abandon Vietnam
altogether.16

Following the partition of Vietnam into a communist North and pro-western South,
Eisenhower chose to invest huge sums of money and prestige in transforming South
Vietnam into a showcase of a new “free Asia.” Spending billions of dollars, sending
military advisers, supporting the increasingly brutal tactics of the South Vietnamese
regime of Ngo Dinh Diem—all this effort would help create a pro-American bastion in
Southeast Asia and halt Communism. Yet it also left a terrible decision for his
successors, once South Vietnam faced a new war with Communist forces. Eisenhower
managed to avoid an American war in Vietnam during his two terms. But he invested so
much American prestige and effort in the success of South Vietnam that by the end of
the 1950s, America had become deeply invested in its fate. The Vietnam War was now
in full swing, and the United States was right in the middle of it. Eisenhower created an
American Vietnam, and his successors would wage a bitter – and failed – war to keep
it.17

INVOLVEMENT UNDER KENNEDY (1961-1963)

➢ It was during Kennedy’s presidency that the United States made a fateful new
commitment to Vietnam. The administration sent in 18,000 advisors. It authorized the
use of napalm (jellied gasoline), defoliants, free fire zones, jet planes, as well as
16
Greenspan, Jesse. 2019. “How the Vietnam War Ratcheted up under 5 U.S. Presidents.” HISTORY. March 14,
2019. https://www.history.com/news/us-presidents-vietnam-war-escalation.

17
Miller. 2018. “America’s Vietnam | Miller Center.” Miller Center. January 31, 2018.
https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/age-of-eisenhower/americas-vietnam.

12
 defoliants such as Agent Orange. Operation Ranch Hand, which utilized the use of
chemical weapons to kill crops and jungle needed by the Viet Cong caused starvation
and long-term health damage to the population. Kennedy was committed to finding an
alternative to nuclear weapons. His answer was counterinsurgency. He wanted to use air
power and special forces, such as the Green Berets, to fight guerrilla wars. His foreign
policy was based on two major premises. The first was a belief in “monolithic
communism”--the idea that all communist movements were orchestrated from Moscow.
The second was the domino theory--that should a single strategic country turn
communist, surrounding countries were sure to follow.18

The government’s efforts, however, weren’t working. By July 1963, Washington faced a
major crisis in Vietnam. Buddhist priests had begun to set themselves on fire to protest
corruption in the South Vietnamese government.The American response was to help
engineer the overthrow of the South Vietnamese president. In 1963, South Vietnamese
generals overthrew the Diem government and murdered President Diem. President
Kennedy sanctioned Diem's overthrow, just weeks after his own assassination partly out
of fear that Diem might strike a deal to create a neutralist coalition government including
Communists, as had occurred in Laos in 1962. Dean Rusk, Kennedy's secretary of state,
remarked, "This kind of neutralism...is tantamount to surrender." By the spring of 1964,
fewer than 150 American soldiers had died in Vietnam.19

INVOLVEMENT UNDER JOHNSON (1963-1969)

➢ Despite Johnson’s success in promoting his domestic reform policies, his presidency
was also defined by the failure of his policies toward Vietnam.Like the three presidents
before him, Johnson was determined to prevent North Vietnamese communists from
taking over the U.S.-supported government of South Vietnam. A believer in the
now-discredited “domino theory,” Johnson worried that America’s security depended on
containing the spread of communism around the world. As part of this effort, Johnson
steadily escalated U.S. military involvement in the Vietnam War. The number of
American troops in Vietnam soared from 16,000 when he took office in 1963 to more
than 500,000 in 1968, yet the conflict remained a bloody stalemate.20

18
Greenspan, Jesse. 2019. “How the Vietnam War Ratcheted up under 5 U.S. Presidents.” HISTORY. March 14,
2019. https://www.history.com/news/us-presidents-vietnam-war-escalation.
19
“Digital History.” 2021. Uh.edu. 2021. https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3460.

20
“Lyndon B. Johnson - Facts, Great Society & Civil Rights.” 2009. HISTORY. October 29, 2009.
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/lyndon-b-johnson#johnson-and-the-vietnam-war.

13
 ➢ OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER (1965)

Recognizing that the South Vietnamese government and army were on the verge
of collapse, Johnson sent the first U.S. combat troops into battle on March 2,
1965, partly in response to a Viet Cong attack on a U.S. air base at Pleiku. He
simultaneously authorized a massive bombing campaign, codenamed Operation
Rolling Thunder, that would continue unabated for years.21

The Johnson administration cited a number of reasons for shifting U.S. strategy
to include systematic aerial assaults on North Vietnam. For example,
administration officials believed that heavy and sustained bombing might
encourage North Vietnamese leaders to accept the non-Communist government
in South Vietnam. The administration also wanted to reduce North Vietnam’s
ability to produce and transport supplies to aid the Viet Cong insurgency. Finally,
Johnson and his advisers hoped to boost morale in South Vietnam while
destroying the Communists’ will to fight.22

➢ SEARCH AND DESTROY

US soldiers searched villages for Viet Cong then ordered them to be bombed or
sprayed. US measured success by body count, but ignored problems, e.g.: Once
an area was ‘destroyed’ the US left, allowing the VC to move straight back in. US
troops destroyed innocent civilians’ homes, creating opposition.23 One notable
example is 1967 Operation Cedar Falls. Villagers returned to their homes, not
realizing the USA declared the area a ‘free-fire’ zone.24

The Johnson administration's strategy--which included search and destroy

missions in the South and calibrated bombings in the North--proved ineffective,
though highly destructive. Despite the presence of 549,000 American troops, the
United States had failed to cut supply lines from the North along the so-called Ho
Chi Minh Trail, which ran along the border through Laos and Cambodia. By 1967,

21
Greenspan, Jesse. 2019. “How the Vietnam War Ratcheted up under 5 U.S. Presidents.” HISTORY. March 14,
2019. https://www.history.com/news/us-presidents-vietnam-war-escalation.
22
“Operation Rolling Thunder - Definition, Vietnam War & Timeline.” 2010. HISTORY. February 24, 2010.
https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/operation-rolling-thunder.
23
Johnson, Lyndon B. 2016. “Lyndon B. Johnson: Foreign Affairs | Miller Center.” Miller Center. October 4, 2016.
https://millercenter.org/president/lbjohnson/foreign-affairs.
24
Schulman, Marc. 2020. “Operation Cedar Falls.” Historycentral.com. 2020.
https://www.historycentral.com/Vietnam/cedarfalls.html.

14
 the U.S. goal was less about saving South Vietnam and more about avoiding a
humiliating defeat.25

➢ 1968 TET-OFFENSIVE

The Tet Offensive saw a series of coordinated attacks by the NLF and North
Vietnamese forces against South Vietnamese cities, shifting public opinion in the
U.S. against the war. Lyndon B. Johnson was the President of the United States
when the Tet Offensive took place in 1968. It marked a turning point in the
Vietnam War and had a profound impact on Johnson's presidency because the
scale and intensity of the attacks contradicted the narrative of progress that had
been presented to the American public.26

The Tet Offensive was a big deal because it marked the peak of U.S. involvement
in the war. Before then, U.S. forces had been on the ground for more than three
years, fighting with South Vietnam's democratic government to try to expel the
communist north. This was a military campaign launched by the North
Vietnamese forces, particularly the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), along with
the National Liberation Front (NLF) or Viet Cong, against the South Vietnamese
and American forces. After Tet, however, U.S. troops' numbers — and public
support — started to erode.27

➢ As the war dragged on and American and Vietnamese casualties mounted, anti-war
protests rocked college campuses and cities across the U.S. Johnson’s popularity within
his own party plummeted as well. When it appeared that he might face a stiff challenge
for the 1968 Democratic presidential nomination, Johnson announced his decision not to
run for reelection.The conflict in Vietnam, though, brought him nothing but pain and
frustration until his last days in office, and U.S. military involvement in Vietnam continued
for four years after his departure from Washington in January 1969.28

25
“Digital History.” 2021. Uh.edu. 2021. https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3461.

26
U.S. Department of Defense. “Highlighting History: How ‘Tet’ Began the End of Vietnam,”
2023.https://www.defense.gov/News/Feature-Stories/story/Article/3291950/highlighting-history-how-tet-began-the-en
d-of-vietnam/.

27
U.S. Department of Defense. “Highlighting History: How ‘Tet’ Began the End of Vietnam,”
2023.https://www.defense.gov/News/Feature-Stories/story/Article/3291950/highlighting-history-how-tet-began-the-en
d-of-vietnam/.
28
“Lyndon B. Johnson - Facts, Great Society & Civil Rights.” 2009. HISTORY. October 29, 2009.
https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/lyndon-b-johnson#johnson-and-the-vietnam-war.

15
INVOLVEMENT UNDER NIXON (1969-1974)

➢ ‌Richard Nixon became the 37th President of the United States in January 1969,
succeeding Lyndon B. Johnson. The Tet Offensive and its aftermath had a significant
influence on Nixon's approach to the war. He campaigned on a promise to end the
Vietnam War, and his administration implemented the policy of "Vietnamization" which
aimed to gradually withdraw U.S. troops while building up South Vietnamese forces to
take over the fight. Nixon's presidency saw the continuation of the conflict and the
eventual signing of the Paris Peace Accords in 1973, which led to the withdrawal of U.S.
forces from Vietnam.29

➢ NIXON’S MADMAN THEORY 30

○ Nixon's approach reflected his own personality - he was known for taking big
risks in his political career. During the Vietnam War, Richard Nixon employed a
strategy known as the "madman theory" to try to gain an upper hand in
negotiations and end the conflict. This approach involved projecting an image of
himself as an unpredictable and aggressive leader who might take extreme
actions, including the use of nuclear weapons, to achieve his goals. Nixon
believed that by appearing "mad" and willing to take risks, he could pressure the
North Vietnamese into making concessions.Nixon's reasoning was that his
reputation and personal demeanor would make his threats believable. He wanted
the North Vietnamese to believe that he could go to great lengths to end the war,
even if it meant risking a larger conflict. By doing so, he aimed to force them to
the negotiating table and secure a favorable outcome for the United States.

➢ THE GIST OF THE 1ST TET OFFENSIVE WAR

❖ The Enemy's Plan: Division and Collapse: The North Vietnamese and Viet
Cong's strategic goal with the Tet Offensive was to create widespread chaos and
undermine the stability of the South Vietnamese government. They hoped to
incite a general uprising by the South Vietnamese population against the

29
Washington Post. “THE SECRET NIXON-LBJ WAR.” The Washington Post, May 28, 1995.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1995/05/28/the-secret-nixon-lbj-war/78bb77c3-e2e7-4261-b4d7-9a
aad200ccde/.
30
Historynewsnetwork.org. “The ‘Madman Theory’ Was Quintessential Nixon | History News Network,” 2023.
https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/185321.

16
 government and its American allies. The NLF and PAVN launched coordinated
attacks on multiple South Vietnamese cities, towns, and military bases. By
launching attacks in numerous cities and towns across South Vietnam, the North
Vietnamese aimed to spark a sense of instability and ultimately contribute to the
collapse of the South Vietnamese regime.

❖ Managing the Element of Surprise: The attacks were launched during the Tet
holiday, a period of ceasefire that was expected to be calm. The North
Vietnamese exploited this lull in hostilities to catch the South Vietnamese and
American forces off guard. This allowed the North Vietnamese to gain temporary
control of several key locations, including parts of Saigon. The timing of the
attacks caught the South Vietnamese and American forces off guard, as they had
not anticipated such a widespread offensive during the Tet holiday. The NLF and
PAVN forces managed to seize control of several key cities temporarily, including
parts of Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City), the South Vietnamese capital.

❖ The Battle for Hue: The city of Hue, a cultural and historical center of Vietnam,
became a focal point of heavy fighting. North Vietnamese forces captured the city
and engaged in brutal urban combat with American and South Vietnamese
troops. The battle resulted in significant destruction and loss of life, and it
highlighted the tenacity of the North Vietnamese fighters.

❖ US: Military win, Public opinion loss: The extensive media coverage of the
attacks, particularly the shocking images from battles like that in Hue, led to a
realization that the war was far from the quick victory that had been portrayed by
the U.S. government. This dissonance between official narratives and the reality
on the ground eroded public support for the war and fueled anti-war sentiment.

Essentially, the Tet Offensive was the beginning of the end of the Vietnam War. It
took seven more years of fighting to officially come to a close, but that attack by
the north is what started the negotiations. The event marked a turning point in the
Vietnam War and ultimately influenced the trajectory of American involvement in
the conflict. 31

31
U.S. Department of Defense. “Highlighting History: How ‘Tet’ Began the End of Vietnam,” 2023.
https://www.defense.gov/News/Feature-Stories/story/Article/3291950/highlighting-history-how-tet-began-the-end-of-vi
etnam/.
17
 ➢ VIETNAMIZATION
President Richard Nixon takes office and starts implementing a policy of
"Vietnamization" (November 3, 1969), gradually withdrawing U.S. troops while
building up South Vietnamese forces. President Richard Nixon told the nation in
a televised address explaining that the United States would no longer take the
lead in the fight against the North Vietnamese. Instead, US forces would train the
South Vietnamese military to handle the conflict on its own. “In the previous
administration,” Nixon said into the camera, “We Americanized the war in
Vietnam. In this administration, we are Vietnamizing the search for peace.” 32

➢ LIBERATION FROM THE WAR33

❖ Implementation: In his first year, Nixon attempted to settle the war on favorable
terms. But when negotiators failed to make progress through the public peace
talks being held in Paris, Nixon turned to more clandestine channels. Through
secret negotiations between National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and the
North Vietnamese, the president warned that if major progress was not made by
November 1, 1969, he would be “compelled—with great reluctance—to take
measures of the greatest consequences.” None of it worked. The North
Vietnamese did not yield. Nixon did not carry out his threats; the war continued.
Bringing the conflict to a successful resolution proved elusive.

❖ Gradual withdrawal of US Troops: Publicly, Nixon said his strategy was a

combination of negotiating and Vietnamization. In fact, he began the withdrawals
even before he issued his secret ultimatum to the Communists, and he continued
to announce partial troop withdrawals throughout his first term. The goal was to
hand over more of the combat responsibilities to the South Vietnamese while
reducing U.S. involvement in direct military operations.

❖ Building south vietnam forces: Nixon pledged an increase in the training and
equipping of the South Vietnamese military, as well as an adherence to all treaty

32
Miller. “Vietnamization | Miller Center.” Miller Center, October 2, 2017.
https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/vietnamization.
33
The New York Times. “Nixon Tried to Spoil Johnson’s Vietnam Peace Talks in ’68, Notes Show (Published 2017).”
2023.https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/02/us/politics/nixon-tried-to-spoil-johnsons-vietnam-peace-talks-in-68-notes-s
how.html.

18
 commitments. “This withdrawal will be made from strength and not from
weakness,” he asserted. “As South Vietnamese forces become stronger, the rate
of American withdrawal can become greater.”

The idea was to enable the South Vietnamese to defend themselves

against the North Vietnamese forces and maintain control over their own territory.
By the spring of 1970, developments in the region seemed to offer a way not only
to take the heat off the South Vietnamese, but to deal the Communists a more
punishing blow.

❖ Escalation in Cambodia campaign: President Nixon also pursued diplomatic

efforts to negotiate an end to the war. Talks were ongoing in Paris between
representatives of the United States, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the
National Liberation Front (NLF). These negotiations aimed to find a political
solution to the conflict and establish a cease-fire.

While Nixon's policy emphasized the gradual withdrawal of troops, there

was a significant escalation in the U.S. military's campaign in neighboring
Cambodia in 1970. U.S. forces launched an incursion into Cambodia to target
North Vietnamese bases and supply routes. This decision led to widespread
protests and criticism both domestically and internationally.

➢ TEMPORARY INVASION OF CAMBODIA

The administration called it an incursion—by a combined force of
American and South Vietnamese troops. American people that the US military,
along with the South Vietnamese People’s Army, were invading Cambodia in
order to intensify the destruction of Viet Cong base camps and to impede North
Vietnamese supply lines. The policy aimed to reduce U.S. involvement in the war
while strengthening the South Vietnamese military's capacity to defend itself.
However, the war continued to evolve with various challenges and complexities,
including protests against the conflict and the broader anti-war movement.34

34
Jessica Pearce Rotondi. “How Nixon’s Invasion of Cambodia Triggered a Check on Presidential Power.” HISTORY,
April 27, 2020. https://www.history.com/news/nixon-war-powers-act-vietnam-war-cambodia.

19
 ➢ PARIS PEACE ACCORDS (1973)

On January 27, 1973, The Paris Peace Accords were signed, leading to a
35
ceasefire and the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam. Henry Kissinger, a
German-born American diplomat, political scientist, and Nobel laureate later
justified the accord by saying, "We believed that those who opposed the war in
Vietnam would be satisfied with our withdrawal, and those who favored an
honorable ending would be satisfied if the United States would not destroy an
ally."

The Paris Peace Accords were signed by representatives of the United

States, North and South Vietnam, National Liberation Front (NLF), and
communist-based insurgents in South Vietnam. The accords were intended to
establish a ceasefire and a political settlement to end the Vietnam War. Signed
after four years of negotiations, with the intent to establish peace in Vietnam and
end the war. The Accords were signed by the United States, and North and
South Vietnam. The agreement stated that armies from both North and South
Vietnam would hold their positions, the United States military would withdraw
from combat and leave the country, and both sides of the conflict would work
together to find a peaceful path to reunification.

❖ Release of POWs: American POWs informed the war was over, to be released in
groups of 120 every two weeks. Lt. Col. Risner's announcement at Hoa Lo was
received with a military salute. Lt. Alvarez remained skeptical, cautious and
optimistic. Reactions varied from disbelief to joyful anticipation. Emotional scenes
at camps; relief, tears, and exhaustion.

❖ Improved Conditions and Anticipation: Improved POW conditions after peace

accord.Receiving letters, supplies, and presents from families. Fresh food
supplies provided by North Vietnamese. POWs imagined future normalcy, simple
pleasures.

❖ Last Moments and Souvenirs: Vietnamese guards provided going-away clothes.

Items like zippers and shoelaces fascinated POWs.Tote bags carried essentials
and sentimental items. Alvarez's tin drinking cup held sentimental value.

35
American Experience. “Paris Peace Talks and the Release of POWs.” Pbs.org. American Experience, August 14,
2019. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/honor-paris-peace-talks-and-release-pows/.

20
 ❖ Release Process and Unaccounted POW: POWs released in shifts, last group on
March 29, 1973. Army Capt. Robert White initially unaccounted for. White's
captors reminded superiors, released days later. White became the last known
surviving U.S. POW from the Vietnam War.

❖ Legacy and Aftermath: The Paris Peace Accords did not lead to a stable or
lasting peace in Vietnam. The unresolved political and military issues, along with
ongoing tensions between the North and the South, eventually resulted in the fall
of Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City) to communist forces in April 1975. This event
marked the official end of the Vietnam War and the reunification of Vietnam under
communist rule.

➢ In summary, 1973 was a pivotal year in the Vietnam War, marked by the signing of the
Paris Peace Accords and the beginning of the withdrawal of U.S. forces. However, the
accords did not bring an end to the conflict as intended, and the war ultimately continued
until the fall of South Vietnam in 1975. 36

➢ FALL OF SAIGON AND REUNIFICATION (1975)

North Vietnamese forces capture Saigon, leading to the fall of South Vietnam.
The country is reunified under communist control. 37

❖ US Presence Post-Paris Accords (1973-1975): 5,000 Americans remained,

including embassy staff, post-Paris Peace Accords (1973). Nixon's threats and
factors like Watergate weakened the US response. NVA's offensive benefited
from limited US involvement and distractions.

❖ NVA Advance and Refugee Crisis (March-April 1975): NVA captured Southern
cities, Da Nang fall caused mass refugee movement. Cities' fall intensified the
crisis, increasing refugee numbers.

❖ Saigon Evacuation (April 29, 1975): North Vietnamese shelled Tan Son Nhut Air
Base. The US Ambassador ordered Saigon evacuation. “White Christmas”
played on the radio signaled evacuation start. Blocked sea lanes, no landing,
necessitated helicopter airlift.

36
“Vietnam War - Negotiation, Withdrawal, Conflict | Britannica.” In Encyclopædia Britannica, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War/The-United-States-negotiates-a-withdrawal.
37
The National Museum of American Diplomacy. “The Fall of Saigon (1975): The Bravery of American Diplomats and
Refugees - the National Museum of American Diplomacy,” April 28, 2023.
https://diplomacy.state.gov/stories/fall-of-saigon-1975-american-diplomats-refugees/.

21
 ❖ Helicopter Airlift and Embassy Evacuation: US embassy became the sole
helicopter departure point. The Original plan was to evacuate Americans; Martin
expanded to include officials and local staff. Over 10,000 South Vietnamese
waited at embassy gates.

❖ Intensive Evacuation Effort (April 29-30, 1975): Helicopters landed every 10

minutes, even on the embassy roof. Exhausted pilots worked up to 19 hours
straight. Total evacuees: more than 7,000 in less than 24 hours, including over
5,500 Vietnamese.

➢ The period around April 1975 saw the North Vietnamese Army's offensive leading to the
fall of Saigon. Despite challenges like blocked sea lanes, an intense helicopter airlift
operation was organized by the US embassy to evacuate thousands of people, including
American citizens, South Vietnamese officials, and local staff, amidst a tense and chaotic
situation. 38

VIETNAM AFTER THE WAR

➢ SOCIALIST REFORMS OF AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY39

After forming the new Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), Communist

leaders in Hanoi launched a wide-ranging program to transform Vietnamese
society. Under socialism, the government controls all resources and means of
producing wealth. By eliminating private property, it is designed to create an
equal society with no social classes.

In 1978, the SRV government nationalized all commerce and industry

which means all factories and businesses are owned by the government.
Vietnam's economy would be centrally planned by a group of Communist Party
officials, and individual citizens would be required to go along with their
decisions. Most people, particularly in the South, resented government controls

38
RHP. “When the US Military Pushed Helicopters Overboard to Make Room for the Last Evacuees of the Vietnam
War, 1975.” Rare Historical Photos, January 20, 2022.
https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/helicopters-overboard-operation-frequent-wind/.
39
“Vietnam since the War (1976-Present) | Encyclopedia.com,” Encyclopedia.com, 2023.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/vietnam-war-1976-present#:~:t
ext=The%20war%20in%20Vietnam%20finally,Republic%20of%20Vietnam%20(SRV).

22
 and would find ways to work around them. Corruption and bribery became
common in Vietnamese business.

The Vietnamese government also placed socialist controls over the

nation's agriculture. They took land away from individual farmers and combined
many small plots into large, collective farms. They believe this would make the
land more productive and ensure that the farmers will grow various crops that
would benefit all people. After all, collective farming has worked well in the South
and fed the North Vietnamese Army.

But farmers in the South resisted since they have always farmed in their
own land. They resented having to sell their crops to the government at official
prices as this wasn't enough to purchase tools, fertilizers, and seeds. Agricultural
production declined very rapidly in Vietnam following the socialist reforms. Food
rations in 1978 were twenty-five percent lower than they had been during the
hardest years of the war.

➢ THE CRISIS OF THE BOAT PEOPLE40

Boat people — refugees fleeing by boat. The term originally referred to

the thousands of Vietnamese who fled their country by sea following the collapse
41
of the South Vietnamese government in 1975. The socialist reforms had
disastrous results. The government regulations made people in the South who
ran their own businesses feel like it was impossible to make a living. Rural
farmers and villagers also resented government controls and suffered from
hunger and disease. Many Vietnamese were unhappy with the hardships created
by the Communist programs.

Shortly after the socialist reforms, many Vietnamese citizens could not
live under the new government. The widespread poverty and the repression of
basic individual rights and freedoms created what Karnow calls a "massive
exodus [departure] from Vietnam—one of the largest migrations of modern
times." Over the next few years, more than 1.5 million people risked their lives to
escape from the country. One of the first waves of people who left were ethnic

40
Vietnam since the War (1976-Present) | Encyclopedia.com,” Encyclopedia.com, 2023.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/vietnam-war-1976-present#:~:t
ext=The%20war%20in%20Vietnam%20finally,Republic%20of%20Vietnam%20(SRV).
41
“Boat People | Vietnamese, Cambodian & Laotian | Britannica,” in Encyclopædia Britannica, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/boat-people-refugees
23
 Chinese. The Chinese in Vietnam are called the Hoa or Han. A few Hoa live in
small settlements in the northern highlands near the Chinese frontier, where they
are also known as Ngai. In 1955, North Vietnam and China agreed that the Hoa
should be integrated gradually into Vietnamese society and should have
Vietnamese citizenship conferred on them.42

Many were successful traders who operated businesses in southern

cities. There was a great deal of political tension between SRV and its neighbor
to the north, China. The government placed especially high restrictions on them
as they were afraid China would use them to influence politics in Vietnam. As a
result, hundreds of thousands of ethnic Chinese fled across the northern border
into China in 1978. Some of them paid bribes to Communist officials in order to
buy their way out of the country. Others tried to reach China by sea in poorly
equipped boats. Huge numbers of ethnic Vietnamese also tried to leave the
country. Cambodia and Laos, their closest neighbors, were also having severe
economic and political problems at that time, and so most of the refugees left
Vietnam by water. At times, more than 50,000 people set sail from the
Vietnamese coast and rafts. They usually had to give up their personal
belongings to afford the trip and leave family members behind. As the
international media picked up on the story, the refugees became known around
the world as "boat people."

Since their vessels were too small to handle storms in the South China
Sea, many of them drowned. Others died of hunger, thirst, or exposure to the
elements. Many have still landed in Southeast Asian countries. However, some
neighboring countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, and the Philippines
refused to accept the boat people as they felt they should not be forced to take
responsibility for them and/or they don’t have enough resources to care for the
refugees. When these refugees land, many of them find it difficult to find
permanent homes and some even stay in refugee camps for years.

Wealthy countries like the United States, Canada, France, and Australia
increased their immigration quotas in order to accept some Vietnamese refugees.
But they did not want to appear too generous because they didn't want to
encourage them to attempt the dangerous journey. Nevertheless, the flow of

42
Jeffrey Hays, “CHINESE in VIETNAM (HOA) | Facts and Details,” Factsanddetails.com, 2019.
https://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Vietnam/sub5_9d/entry-3402.html

24
 refugees continued into the early 1980s. The crisis ended when the conditions
within Vietnam improved and the government started allowing the people to leave
the country legally. About one million refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia
eventually resettled in the United States. While some have become successful
members of American society, some are still struggling.

➢ WAR RETURNS TO INDOCHINA43

Indochina, also called (until 1950) French Indochina or French Indochina

Française, the three countries of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia formerly
associated with France, first within its empire and later within the French Union.
The term Indochina refers to the intermingling of Indian and Chinese influences in
the culture of the region.44 As the SRV struggled with internal problems, it also
continued to clash with neighboring countries. Vietnamese leaders felt that
Cambodia and Laos— the countries along Vietnam's western border—owed
them a debt. After all, Vietnam did most of the fighting against the French and
Americans in Indochina. Vietnam expected Cambodia and Laos to support them
politically. They wanted to form an alliance with Vietnam as their leader.

Cambodia refused to go along with this plan. Shortly after the North
Vietnamese captured the South Vietnamese in 1975, a group of radical
Communist rebels known as Khmer Rouge took control of Cambodia’s
government led by a man named Pol Pot. He immediately launched a violent and
destructive transformation of Cambodian society. They drove people out of the
cities and into labor camps and murdered intellectuals who opposed their rule.
Within a short time, millions of Cambodians had been executed or had died of
hunger and disease.

Cambodia had a long history of disputes against Vietnam. Once the

Khmer Rouge ruled, they demanded to return Cambodian territory which had
been seized by Vietnam generations earlier. In December 1978, the Vietnamese
government sent troops into Cambodia to overthrow the Khmer Rouge and
protect its borders.By January 1979, Vietnam's invasion forces had captured the
Cambodian capital city, Phnom Penh. They immediately put an end to the brutal

43
“Vietnam since the War (1976-Present) | Encyclopedia.com,” Encyclopedia.com, 2023.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/vietnam-war-1976-present#:~:t
ext=The%20war%20in%20Vietnam%20finally,Republic%20of%20Vietnam%20(SRV).
44
“Indochina | Definition, History, & Maps | Britannica,” in Encyclopædia Britannica, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/place/Indochina
25
 policies of the Khmer Rouge. They also established a new, pro-Vietnamese
government under Prime Minister Hun Sen. Even though Vietnam put an end to
the Khmer Rouge from power, many countries around the world criticized
Vietnam’s actions. For example, the United States and other countries formed
an economic embargo to punish Vietnam. The U.S. government also provided
support to Cambodian rebels fighting against the Hun Sen government, including
the Khmer Rouge.

But the country that was most upset about Vietnam's invasion of
Cambodia was China. China, Vietnam’s neighbor to the north, supported North
Vietnamese Communist rebels during the Vietnam War. In return, China
expected to form an alliance with Vietnam to go against their rival, the Soviet
Union. However, Vietnam had a long history of disputes against China. In fact,
China had controlled Vietnam by force for hundreds of years. The new
Vietnamese government grew suspicious and was determined to maintain its
independence. When Vietnam invaded Cambodia, China became concerned that
it was losing power over Indochina. In February 1979, the Chinese responded by
invading northern Vietnam in order to "teach Vietnam a lesson." The Vietnamese
army fought off the attack, but both sides suffered tens of thousands of casualties
(killed and wounded soldiers). In addition, an area of northern Vietnam that had
escaped damage during the Vietnam War was destroyed.

➢ ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL PROBLEMS GROW45

The fighting between Cambodia and Vietnam only made the situation
worse within the SRV. The expense of fighting and maintaining troops in
Cambodia reduced the money available to solve problems at home. In addition,
the economic embargo made it impossible for Vietnam to trade or borrow money
from other countries. Before long, the Vietnamese economy was suffering from
terrible inflation (a situation where the cost of goods rises more quickly than
people's incomes).

By 1986, prices were rising by 600 percent per year. At that rate, one
chicken would cost an average Vietnamese worker an entire month's salary. The
Vietnamese government also had trouble uniting the economies and culture of
both the North and South sections of the country. People in the South tended to

45
“Vietnam since the War (1976-Present) | Encyclopedia.com,” Encyclopedia.com, 2023.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/vietnam-war-1976-present#:~:t
ext=The%20war%20in%20Vietnam%20finally,Republic%20of%20Vietnam%20(SRV).
26
 resist the Socialist controls the North placed upon them. "Historic differences
between north and south were exacerbated [made worse] during three decades
of war, and even the most heavy-handed methods could not force the
freewheeling and resilient south into a made-in-Hanoi mold," George C. Herring
explains in America's Longest War.

By the mid-1980s, even the countries who supported Vietnam during the
Vietnam War started to acknowledge how they were running the country poorly.
After all, they promised to unite the North and South, but instead, conditions for
many citizens were worse than they had ever been before. "By the time
Vietnam's rulers staged huge public ceremonies to celebrate the tenth
anniversary of their victory, it was no longer possible to conceal—even from
themselves—how poorly their leadership had repaid the enormous sacrifices that
had given their revolution its victory," Arnold R. Isaacs comments in Vietnam
Shadows: The War, Its Ghosts, and Its Legacy.

➢ THE DOI MOI ECONOMIC REFORMS46

In 1986, the Vietnamese Communist Party responded to the growing

problems by electing new leaders. Nguyen Van Linh became the new chief of the
ruling party. They then announced a series of major economic reforms known as
doi moi, or “renovation.” "The Communist Party bosses recognized that they had
squandered the peace and tarnished the reputation they had gained from
winning the war," Karnow notes. "Desperate, they introduced an array of
pragmatic economic reforms." Under doi moi, private citizens gradually regained
control over their own businesses. They also made some moves to improve
relations with the United States, China, and other countries. For example, it
expressed interest in withdrawing its troops in Cambodia. In 1988, under an
initiative called Directive 10, the Vietnamese government took apart the collective
farms and returned the land to individual farmers. They also ended all price
controls on farm products. The reforms created positive effects on the
Vietnamese economy.
Agricultural production increased by twenty-two percent and industrial
output by fifty percent between 1989 and 1993. In fact, Vietnam became the
third-largest rice exporter in the world during this period. "This movement toward

46
“Vietnam since the War (1976-Present) | Encyclopedia.com,” Encyclopedia.com, 2023.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/vietnam-war-1976-present#:~:t
ext=The%20war%20in%20Vietnam%20finally,Republic%20of%20Vietnam%20(SRV).
27
 a more open Vietnamese," Murray Hiebert writes in Chasing the Tigers: A Portrait
of the New Vietnam.
Since 1986, Vietnam has moved from a centrally planned towards a
market-oriented system through several major economic and trade reforms. The
first positive results of the reform process became visible in the early 1990s when
poverty declined significantly. The Vietnamese agricultural sector has also
experienced high growth and impressive export achievements. The country
changed from a food importer to one of the major exporters worldwide. The
domestic reform process and the opening of the economy since the early 1990s,
however, impacted on the gaps between the domestic and international prices.
Thus, since the mid-1990s, the net support of agriculture became positive and
increased - but still reaching only rather moderate levels.47

➢ VIETNAM RESUMES DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED

STATES48

As the Vietnamese economy became more free under doi moi, the
government took the initiative to improve relationships with other countries. They
needed money, technology, and management skills for their economic reforms.
Their traditional source of support, the Soviet Union, was having economic and
political problems so the Vietnamese leaders looked toward capitalist countries
like the United States and Japan, as well as Singapore, Taiwan, and Indonesia,
their successful Southeast Asian neighbors.
The first step to improving relations with other countries is to withdraw its
troops from Cambodia since it's one of the reasons why countries are angry
leading to an economic embargo against Vietnam. Vietnamese leaders began
the process of removing occupation forces from Cambodia in 1987 and
completed it by 1989. In 1991, Vietnam signed a formal peace agreement that
led to free elections and a new government for Cambodia in 1993. Unfortunately
for Cambodia, despite the Death of Pol Pot, which made the Khmer Rouge no
longer a factor in their politics, Cambodia is still one of the poorest countries.
Making peace with Cambodia had several positive effects on Vietnam. In 1991,

47
Hoa Nguyen and Ulrike Grote, “Agricultural Policies in Vietnam : Producer Support Estimates, 1986-2002,”
ResearchGate (Elsevier BV, February 2004).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45130047_Agricultural_Policies_in_Vietnam_Producer_Support_Estimates_
1986-2002
48
“U.S. And Vietnam Establish Diplomatic Relations, July 11, 1995,” POLITICO, July 11, 2018.
https://www.politico.com/story/2018/07/11/this-day-in-politics-july-11-1995-702290

28
 Vietnam resumed diplomatic relations and began trading with China and other
Southeast Asian countries.
In 1995, Vietnam formally joined the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), a cooperative organization of countries that includes
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines, and Thailand.
Withdrawing from Cambodia also helped Vietnam improve its relationship with
the United States. Due to continuing hard feelings about the war, the US
government established several conditions to continue diplomatic ties with
Vietnam. One of the conditions was that Vietnam had to help account for all the
US armies that went “missing in action” during the war. As Vietnam was trying to
satisfy the needs of the Americans, the US government gradually eliminated
political barriers between the two countries. The President at that time, Bill
Clinton, ended the economic embargo in early 1994. After two decades of
severed ties, On July 11, 1995, President Bill Clinton announced that the United
States and Vietnam had established normal diplomatic relations.

➢ VIETNAM TODAY49

In some areas, Vietnam shows signs of a strong economic recovery. Ho Chi Minh
(formerly known as Saigon) is booming with people riding motorbikes to work.
There are fancy office buildings and hotels, shops selling high-tech electronic
equipment, glittering dance clubs and karaoke bars, and huge billboards
advertising Coca-Cola and other Western products. The capital city of Hanoi is
less busy but still highly developed, with business offices of many large foreign
companies.Saigon’s name was changed to Ho Chi Minh City, to honor the
revolutionary leader who had declared independence back in 1945.50

In the 1990s, Vietnam began trying to attract Western tourists, including former
US soldiers and their families. They even offered tours of extensive tunnels used
by Viet Cong guerilla fighters. Observers noted that Vietnamese don’t seem to
resent Americans but rather sorrowful towards the loss caused by the war. Part of
the reason is that more than half of the seventy-six million population of the
country was born after the Vietnam War ended. Many people in this younger

49
“Vietnam since the War (1976-Present) | Encyclopedia.com,” Encyclopedia.com, 2023.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/vietnam-war-1976-present#:~:t
ext=The%20war%20in%20Vietnam%20finally,Republic%20of%20Vietnam%20(SRV).
50
“Vietnam Passage. The City: After Liberation | PBS,” Pbs.org, 2023.
https://www.pbs.org/vietnampassage/City/city.after.html#:~:text=But%20the%20next%20decade%20wouldn,declared
%20independence%20back%20in%201945.
29
generation appear to be more interested in learning English and establishing
good careers than in worrying about the past.
In April 2000, a project was launched to turn the most well-known
landmark of the Vietnam War into an opportunity for economic growth. It involves
transforming parts of the Ho Chi Minh Trail—the network of jungle trails that
moved troops and supplies between North and South Vietnam—into a
1,000-mile-long national highway. They predicted that it would open up trade and
industry to the untapped mountainous western provinces. The estimated
three-year-long project is already off to a bumpy start, however, since landmines
and unexploded bombs are peppered throughout the trail. This undertaking is
one of many initiatives to convert war "relics."
Vietnam remains one of the world’s poorest countries with an average
annual income of 300 dollars per person despite outward signs of prosperity.
Conditions in the countryside have not improved as a lot are still working in rice
fields as they have been for generations. Disease and hunger are still common
problems while medical care is limited. Vietnam must move toward an economy
based on technology in the future. The Communist Party no longer controls every
detail of people's lives, but the government's economic reforms have not been
matched by wide-ranging political reforms. Vietnamese leaders do not allow
criticism but still actively prevent rival political movements from developing.
Although Vietnamese have access to foreign television, Communist officials often
censor information published in newspapers and magazines.
In 1996, the Vietnamese government took steps to control the people's
access to the Internet. Despite such efforts to control opposition to their policies,
the Communist Party still appears to be losing power in Vietnam. The collapse of
the Soviet Union helped increase people's doubts about the wisdom of the
Communist political system. In addition, many Vietnamese blame the
government for causing the country's economic problems after the war. The
government still faces corruption. The younger generation of Vietnamese has
become interested in Western culture rather than traditional Communist ideas,
with this, the Vietnamese Communist Party has declined over the years.
Some observers predict that the Vietnamese people will soon begin
demanding greater freedom and individual rights. "As Vietnam's society
modernizes, receives information, and joins the outside world, it seems likely that
economic change will beget [produce] greater participation in the Vietnamese
political process," Frederick Z. Brown predicts that Vietnam joins the world.

30