BIO: 11HA18 – 20212022 - naturally occurring elements

- high atomic weight

LECTURE 1
- density: at least 5 times greater than
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON water
HUMAN HEALTH - the worst
- factories use it as raw materials to
produce the products
A. ENVIRONMENT: DEFINITION
- very useful, but dangerous
- plays a powerful role in the transmission of
health issues, infectious diseases, including
HEAVY METALS: EFECTS
vector-borne diseases
charge: neurotoxic effects - brain
- is a huge significance to public health
strategies around the world:
HEAVY METALS: TOXICITY
socio-ecological systems and climate
depends on:
change
- amount of dose
- diseases that happen in a human body is
- route of exposure
not only by biological factors (pathogens,
- chemical species: Cu, Hg, Pb, etc.
viruses, etc.), but also by the
- personal classification: age, gender,
non-biological external factors (heavy
genetics, and nutritional status
metals, dust, etc.), environment, where we
live in
HEAVY METALS: ROUTE
- non-biological external factors: triggers
- enters the body through skin
the body to not function properly because
- inhalation
of the environment toxins
- ingestion
B. CLIMATE CHANGE
HEAVY METALS: EXAMPLES
- change in weather patterns
- can be found almost everywhere
- happens for a long time, but is not
- televisions, paints, costume jewelry,
noticeable
ceramics, batteries, lipstick, and
electronics
C. RELATION TO RESEARCH
- leads to improved vector control
HEAVY METALS: POISONING
measures and disease prevention
- accumulation, in toxic amounts, in the
- explores how policies of health,
soft tissues of the body
environment, and development can be
aligned
- raises awareness, improve understanding
- can be a device to improve our
measures to prevent diseases
- helps to create programs to decrease
diseases

D. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS: DEFINITION

- cancer-causing chemicals: not all
chemicals
- endocrine disruptors [ 2. LEAD ]
- very low solubilities in water but
- highly soluble in fat LEAD: POISONING SYMPTOMS
- when entered the body, becomes route: inhalation/topical - long term
materials then the bodies react - headaches
- effects: long term - generation to - irritability
generation (cancer) - reduced sensations
- aggressive behavior
E. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS: EXAMPLES - difficulty sleeping
- heavy metals, pollution, and particulates route: oral/ingestion - more dangerous
- abdominal pain
I. HEALTH ISSUES CAUSED BY - poor appetite
ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS - constipation

>> ENVIRONMENTAL TOXIN 1: HEAVY LEAD: COMPLICATIONS FOR CHILDREN

METALS, LEAD, MERCURY because of the toys from China with Lead
- loss of developmental skills
- behavior: attention problems
[ 1. HEAVY METALS ]
- hearing loss
- kidney damage
HEAVY METALS: DEFINITION
- reduced IQ

[ 3. MERCURY ]

MERCURY: DEFINITION
- metallic
- people had no idea it was poisonous
before
- organic and inorganic forms
- very dangerous
- also acts as a thermometer in the past,
stored in a glass
- can’t be exposed to plastic

MERCURY: POISONING SYMPTOMS

- inflammation of the gums
- upset stomach
- kidney failure
- fetal brain development
- numbness
- rashes
- mental confusion
- irritability
- memory loss
- swelling
- peeling of skin >> ENVIRONMENTAL TOXIN 2:
POLLUTION
MERCURY: EXPOSURE
through: POLLUTION: HEALTH EFFECTS
- diet
- medications
- environment
- work or play

[ BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION ]

BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION: DEFINITON

- occurs because each animal in a food
chain consumes many times its own weight
in food throughout its lifetime
- the concentration of toxic pollutants is
higher in the tissues of organisms higher on
the food chain
- from a very low dose taken by the lowest
species in the food chain, it magnifies until
it reaches the highest species in the food
chain [ A. AIR POLLUTION ]
- concentration: may be high or low
AIR POLLUTION: DEFINITION
[ BIOLOGICAL ACCUMULATION ] - microscopic pollutants
- we can’t see them, but we know they
BIOLOGICAL ACCUMULATION: DEFINITON exists
- results to biological magnification - damages the respiratory and circulatory
- the build up systems: lungs, heart, and brain
- kapag naipon ung toxins sa katawan
AIR POLLUTION: MAJOR
CONCERNS/CAUSES
- global warming
- destruction of ozone layer
- smog production
 - because of the trashes we throw in
sea/oceans
- then being eaten by fishes

WATER POLLUTION: EFFECTS

- use of excessive water = depleting
freshwater supplies
- building roads/parking lots = prevents
rainwater from soaking in, causing runoff,
flooding
- human activities = pollute water sources -
throwing trashes in sea/oceans

[ 1. GREENHOUSE GASES ] WATER POLLUTION: EUTROPHICATION

GREENHOUSE GASES: EFFECTS
- excessive greenhouse gases lead to
global warming (rise in earth’s surface
temperature)
- without gg = average temp of surface
would be freezing
GREENHOUSE GASES: CAUSES
- deforestation
- burning of fossil fuels
- rapid growth of plant life
- death of animal life in a shallow body of
water, resulting to excessive organic or
inorganic nutrients
- full of plants
- causing the death of some organisms in
the water: fishes
- organic pollutants: from sewage and
industry
- inorganic pollutants: nitrates, phosphate
fertilizers, sulfates from detergents

[ 2. SMOG ]

SMOG: DEFINITION
- sunlight and vapor = hazy brown, gray
layer of smog
- toxic to humans

SMOG: COMPONENTS
- nitrogen oxides
- hydrocarbons
- eye and respiratory irritants
- small oil droplets, wood particles, coal WATER POLLUTION: TOXIC POLLUTANTS
ash, asbestos, lead, animal waste, and - polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
dust - oil and gasoline
- greenhouse gases - pesticides
- composed mainly of tropospheric - herbicides
ozone (O3) - heavy metals
SMOG: MAJOR SOURCE
[ 1. GROUNDWATER ]
- burning of fossil fuels
GROUNDWATER POLLUTION: DEFINITION
SMOG: EFFECTS
- contaminates drinking water supplies
- chronic respiratory illness: asthma
- very slow exchange of the groundwater
- sickness
pool = “cleans” slowly
- water stored underneath the ground
[ 2.1 THERMAL INVERSION ] starts to become contaminated
THERMAL INVERSION: DEFINITION GROUNDWATER POLLUTION:
- atmospheric conditions CONTAMINANTS
- traps smog and prevents its dispersal - organics: carbon tetrachloride,
pesticides, fertilizers, radioactive waste
THERMAL INVERSION: CONTROL
- air pollution abatement/reducing GROUNDWATER POLLUTION: EFFECTS
measures - miscarriages, skin rashes, nervous
disorders, birth defects
[ B. WATER POLLUTION ]
[ 2. GARBAGE ]
WATER POLLUTION: DEFINITION
GARBAGE POLLUTION: DEFINITION DIESEL EXHAUST: EFFECT
- garbage: plastics, papers, bottles, etc. - cancer
- degrade very slowly
- floating garbage ends up on shorelines or II. INFECTIOUS DISEASES BY
in big floating “rafts” in the open ocean MICROORGANISMS
GARBAGE POLLUTION: EXAMPLES
- Pacific Trash Vortex: catch collective
trash vortex

GARBAGE POLLUTION: EFFECTS

- toxic chemicals leach out of plastic and
are found in the blood and tissue

>> ENVIRONMENTAL TOXIN 3:

PARTICULATES

[ A. PARTICULATE MATTER ]

PARTICULATE MATTER: DEFINITION [ A. BACTERIAL ]

- also called PM
- tiny particles found in the air
- formed in the atmosphere because of
chemical reactions between pollutants

PARTICULATE MATTER: INCLUSIONS

- dust, dirt, soot, smoke, liquid droplets,
chemical compounds

PARTICULATE MATTER: ROUTE

- through breathing or inhalation
- can develop heart and lung diseases, 1. PNEUMONIA
asthma attacks, and lung cancer
- respiratory system

2. TUBERCULOSIS
- caused by bacteria with different kind of
cell wall: very sticky
- acid fast bacteria
PARTICULATE MATTER: EXPOSURE - matagal na gamutan
- larger particulates are exhaled, while the - not airborne
smaller ones are more dangerous and left - somewhat same to pneumonia but iba
inside ung tunog ng cough
- small particles can be spread within less
than 10 micrometers

PARTICULATE MATTER: EFFECTS

- nonfatal heart attacks
- irregular heartbeat
- aggravated asthma
- decreased lung function
- increased respiratory symptoms: airways
irritation, coughing, difficulty breathing
- premature death in people with heart or
lung disease
[ B. VIRAL ]

1. INFLUENZA A
- affects the respiratory system
- like a common cold, but it’s not
- person to person
- myalgia (muscle pain)

[ C. FUNGAL ]

1. BLASTOMYCOSIS
- fungi is often seen in soil, it originated in
soil
- found in: moist soil, decomposing matter:
wood and leaves
- dry cough
2. DENGUE FEVER - pulmonary disease
- not caused by the mosquito, but the virus - not common in PH, but in places with
(DENV) that uses and colonizes the high humidity
mosquito then bite people
- all is related to blood stream
- high fever: 7 days or more
- rigors/chill
- nasal bleed
- lowers blood platelets
- we don’t see something in the blood
smear under the microscope

2. COCCIDIOIMYCOSIS (VALLEY FEVER)

- rashes
- medj same with Blastomycosis: soil
- not common in PH, but in places with
high humidity
- spores

3. DIARRHEA
- acute/mild: sudden, lasts for 1 to 2 days
- chronic: lasts for at least 4 weeks
- origin: parasites, bacteria, fungi

3. ASPERGILLOSIS
- common in PH
- yellow, blue, black
- fungi found in foods
- dead leaves, compost piles and other
decaying vegetable matter, stored grain,
and even foods and spices
- higher risk: weakened immune
systems/lung diseases
- the spores can travel to many colonies,
so tapon mo na lang #NoToSakitMgaTeh
- scattered right/left upper lung field
crackles

BIO: 11HA18 – 20212022

LECTURE 2
[ D. PARASITIC ] POPULATION

1. TAENIASIS [ A. ECOSYSTEM ]
Parasite: Taenia sp.
Pig: Taenia solium ECOSYSTEM: DEFINITION
Cattle: Taenia saginata - basic unit of economy: main topic
- your stool will have eggs/worms - community and organisms in social
- the eggs will embed to your tissues environment
- ex. not well-cooked beef or meat - 4 ecosystems: aquatic, terrestrial, lentic,
lotic
- different things per ecosystem
- collective community interaction of biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living)
environmental factors

ECOSYSTEM: TYPES
1. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
- all organisms that can survive in water
- sea environment
- organisms: fishes, sea stars, jellyfish, etc.

2. HUMAN SLEEPING SICKNESS 2. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

Vector: Tsetse Fly
Parasite: Trypanosoma brucei
- existing only in Africa
- invade human’s body tissues
- all organisms that can survive in land
- land environment
- organisms: humans, cats, wild animals
3. LENTIC ECOSYSTEM
- water is not flowing
- lakes, brackish
- no movements in water
- different organisms can survive
- fresh water

4. LOTIC ECOSYSTEM
- opposite of lentic
- water is flowing
- rivers, mangroves, etc.
- different organisms can survive
- fresh water
3. MALARIA
Vector: Anopheles sp. Mosquitoes
Parasite: Plasmodium sp. [ B. POPULATION ]
- lowers blood platelets
- almost same with Dengue virus POPULATION: DEFINITION
- we see something in the blood smear - group of same individuals/species in a
under the microscope same geographic area
Ex. Filipinos living in the Philippines = same
human species, occupying Philippine’s
theory

POPULATION ECOLOGY (SURVIVAL)

- branch of ecology
- influences the biotic and abiotic factors’
survival: (1) population density (2)
population distribution (3) population size
(4) age structure

1. DENSITY
- number/value of individuals per unit
area/volume
- birth, death, migrated, emigrated people
of an area [ C. POPULATION GROWTH ]
Ex. map of the Philippines in different
regions 1. BIOTIC POTENTIAL
- shows how population changes
2. DISPERSION - maximum growth rate of a population
- pattern of spacing among individuals under ideal conditions
within the boundaries of the population - low (matagal magproduce), moderate,
- how it was kalat high (mabilis magproduce)
a. clumped - sama-sama, abundant, not Example:
permanent, moves to places to places 1. people = low biotic potential: mothers
b. uniform - evenly distributed, ex. followed carry their baby 9 months so medj matagal
by albatross during nesting season bc they yon diba, number of offspring mothers
become aggressive, so they distance produce
themselves 2. bacteria = high biotic potential: they
c. random - position of each individual is grow fast in just 20 minutes
independent of other individuals, followed
by plants/flowers/fungi, can grow
anywhere, can move depending on
vector, independent of each other, can
survive

3. DEMOGRAPHY
- study of vital statistic of a population
- how they change over time
- sees the population increase/decrease Rule of 72:
- PSA: records census of each household to 72 / x = doubling size: increase
ask how many are living in their house Years: +-2 years

a. reproductive rates or fertility schedule

- age-specific summary of the
reproductive rates in a population
- table

b. survivorship curves
- a graphic way of representing the data in
a life table
- chart

TYPE OF CURVES:
- type 1: high probability of surviving
- type 2: dependent, survive or not
- type 3: mostly die at an early age, people
eat them, mabilis maparami: crabs,
shrimps, cows
2. ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
- limitations on nutrients, energy, space,
sources
- predation by other species
- disease
- environmental toxins
3. CARRYING CAPACITY
- population size that the environment can
support indefinitely/unlimitedly
- prevents the organisms to over produce
that lead to imbalance the food chain and
maintain equilibrium
- pag naubos ang resources and limited na
lang ung mabibigyan, mag-uunahan ung
mga tao to survive, and if not chosen, it
leads to death
Ex. humans living on earth that has supplies
and resources to help survive, but not
constant

[ D. POPULATION GROWTH
REGULATION ]

- “what factors stop a population to

grow?”
- factors that stop a population to grow: all
living organisms
ex. emigration, immigration, famine, food

1. DENSITY-INDEPENDENT POPULATIONS
- birth rate and death rate do not change
- pag tumaas ung isa, di tataas ung isa
- ANO RAW
- limiting factor, in ecology, any force that
affects the size of a population of living
things regardless of the density of the
population

2. DENSITY-DEPENDENT POPULATIONS
- population that is already established,
resources begin to become scarce
(limited) = competition starts to play a role
- the number of individuals is dependent on
the population

a. competition for resources

- in an increased population with limited
resources, competition occurs Pyramid: still expanding
Bullet: advanced
b. territoriality
- competition for a habitat BIO: 11HA18 – 20212022
- limits the birth rate, unless there is peace
LECTURE 3
c. disease BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
- affects the health and leads to death
- some may survive, some may not HUMAN BODY
- complex: not a stand-alone process
d. predation - there are different organ systems that
- if prays increased in a population, but work together
predators are kulang - composed of organic molecules: carbon,
- imbalance hydrogen, oxygen

e. toxic wastes FOUR BIOMOLECULES OF THE BODY:

- because of trashes in oceans, people MAINTAIN THE FUNCTIONAL BALANCE OF
can’t get resources anymore like fishes THE BODY
- may lead to death

[ E. HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH ]

 - insert water, separate piattos
- water (H2O) is added to -O

b. Dehydration Synthesis
- condensation
- removal of water
- to remove water = form a bond between
2 monomers (small subunit)
- losing of water to create/synthesize a
new molecule
- dehydrate: lose water
- synthesize: make
- remove water, piattos are together

MACROMOLECULES ● CARBOHYDATES
- also known as biomolecules - MONOSACCHARIDES
- basic building block of the natural world - DISACCHARIDES
- consists of our carbon: abundant element - POLYSACCHARIDES
in living organisms - 18%
1. CARBOHYDRATES
MACROMOLECULES: POLYMERS - long chain of sugar molecules to form a
a. polymers built from MONOMERS: polymer
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids = - general formula: CH2O
covalent bonds = electrons are shared
between 2 atoms
b. polymers built from GLYCEROL, FATTY - exists as disaccharide and
ACIDS: lipids polysaccharide
- composed of -C, -H, -O

CARBOHYDRATES: FUNCTIONS
a. energy
b. raw materials
c. energy storage
d. structural materials

CLASSIFYING SUGARS:
a. LOCATION OF THE CARBONYL GROUP
- carbonyl group: C=O (carbon double
bond oxygen)
● C=O: located at the end =
Carbon
- 4 electrons aldehyde/aldose sugar
● C=HO: located at the middle =
- not stable alone, should exist with another
atom (hydrogen) to be stable ketone/ketose sugar
- needs covalent bond to create polymer
b. SIZE OF THE CARBON SKELETON
- locating the total carbon in the skeletal
structure of the molecule
- same number/total, but different in
location in carbon skeleton
● six carbon sugar = hexose
● glucose = C6H12O6
● galactose = C6H12O6: penmater of
glucose (mirror image)

1.2 MONOSACCHARIDES
- simplest kind of carbohydrates
- only single sugar
- contains at least 5 (pentose) or 6
MACROMOLECULES: PROCESSES
(hexose) membered carbon ring
a. Hydrolysis
- carbon skeletons = raw materials
- insert/add water
- joins together with poly/disa = create a
- to breakdown/separate a (1) molecule =
complicated carbohydrate
2 stable monomers
- lysis: breakdown
MONOSACCHARIDES: EXAMPLES
- hydro: due to water
a. GLUCOSE
- blood sugar: checked in diabetic people
- essential energy source
- mild sweetness, not like table sugar
- found in every poly & disa
- not only human beings have, but all living
organisms
- piattos structure, not following the
fishbone structure
b. FRUCTOSE
- sweetest
- found in fruits, honey: high fructose
concentration = no increase in blood sugar
level, but would affect weight gain
- added to soft drinks, cereals, and
desserts: artificial sweetener
c. GALACTOSE
- can’t stand-alone: unstable
- stick with glucose/pentamer of glucose =
same chemical formula, but diff structure
- no taste, hardly tastes sweet
- rarely found naturally as a single sugar
1.3 DISACCHARIDES
- 2 sugar monomers joined = dehydration
synthesis = 1,4 - glycosidic bonding
DISACCHARIDES: KINDS
a. MALTOSE
- glucose + glucose
- not so abundant, but found as product of
starch breakdown
- found in malt-rich products (milo, beer,
tiger cookies)
b. SUCROSE
- glucose + fructose
- table sugar: sweet
- synthesized from sugarcanes: sweet taste
of sugar depends on the bonds between
sugar monomers
- brown, white, powdered
- long chain of glucose monomers
- polymer of glucose monomers
- simplest form: amylose
- within cellular structures: plastid
- joined by 1-4 linkage
b. GLYCOGEN
- energy storage of animals & humans
- liver, muscle cells, fat cells
- systemic & cellular energy source
STRUCTURAL: ALTERNATING UP & DOWN
STRUCTURE OF LINKAGE
a. CELLULOSE
- major component of plant cell walls
- cause cell walls to be rigid and prevent
plants to lose water
- more rigid structure
- fiber
- most abundant organic compound on
Earth
b. CHITIN
- major constituent in exoskeleton:
- insects
- arthropods (crabs, lobsters, shrimps)
- cell walls of fungi
- most rigid carbohydrate
- structure: arranged anti-parallel forming
alpha chitin
CARBOHYDRATES: DIGESTION
- digested using enzymes (-ase) =
enzymatic reaction
- before absorbing glucose, it needs to be
cut into monomers
- diffuse in small intestine: jejunum =
capillary network: thin, to speed into the
bloodstream
- then bloodstream

c. LACTOSE
- glucose + galactose
- milk sugar
- main carbohydrate of milk

1.4 POLYSACCHARIDES
- complex sugars carbohydrates
- architecture & function
- composed of several monomers
- position of glycosidic bonding =
related to the function of the
polysaccharide: very long chain

POLYSACCHARIDES: FUNCTIONS
- storage: starch, glycogen
- structural: cellulose

STORAGE: POINTING DOWN STRUCTURE

LINKAGE
a. STARCH
- energy storage of plants

Digested by proteases
Pepsin, trypsin, erepsin/peptidase
Digested by carbohydrates
Amylase
Digested by lipase
Lipase
2. LIPIDS
- only biomolecule that is not a polymer
- general formula: CHO
- most diverse group: can be found
everywhere, functions differently - fats,
phospholipids (cells), steroids
- structure: (1) glycerol head & (2)
hydrocarbon chain
- long hydrocarbon chain
- less oxygen
- glycerol + 3 fatty acids
- to lose weight: limit calories intake
LIPIDS: FUNCTIONS
- fats store energy source twice as much as
carbohydrates
- cushion the organs
- insulates body/temperature insulation of
mammals: whales - warm-blooded
2.1 SATURATED FATS - long, straight
hydrocarbon chains, solid, cardiovascular
disease: atherosclerosis
2.2 UNSATURATED FATS - long hydrocarbon,
double bonds, bended, liquid, not packed,
trans fat (worse) and unsaturated fats: bad
kind of fats, better than saturated
2.3 PHOSPHOLIPIDS - cell membrane and
soaps, dual personality due to interaction
of water
2.4 STEROIDS - endocrine system:
production of hormones
RED CORONARY ARTERIES
- carries the oxygen rich/blood away from
the heart
- supply the heart muscle itself and
myocardium
- small diameter: may become
partially/completely blocked by
atherosclerosis

BLUE CORONARY VEINS

- carries the oxygen deficient blood to the
heart
- collect blood from myocardial capillaries
and channel it back to the right atrium
d. QUATERNARY - 4th degree, several
3. PROTEINS tertiary structures join by hydrophobic
- diverse group of large & complex interactions to form functional protein from
polymer molecules made of long chain quaternary structure, functional
amino acids
- monomer: amino acids - 20
- polymer: polypeptide - 1 or more, large
and complex, 3D shape

PROTEINS: FUNCTIONS
Structural, catalytic, signal, immunologic

Amino acid monomers = joins –> protein

molecule PROTEINS: DENATURATION
Central carbon atom - hydrogen,
carboxylic, amino, r group

R group - follows a general structure,

different in each amino acid, determines
the nature of amino acid = acidic, basic

PROTEINS: STRUCTURES
a. PRIMARY - 1st degree, long chain of
amino acids that forms polypeptide,
lysozyme: enzyme in tears & mucus = kills
bacteria, no folding occurs = no bonds
present, not functional
Protein denaturation - protein unfolds due
to external factors: temperature, pH,
salinity, substrate concentration, surface
area, pressure = loses its function, BUT
some = reversed and perform protein
renaturation (RARE)

- The lower energy used, the better

b. SECONDARY - 2nd degree, local folding,
polypeptide chains are linked together by
hydrogen bonds to form 2 kinds of folds:
alpha helix or beta pleated sheet, not
functional
- Energy has limits, can’t produce so much
- Without enzymes, more energy will be
used, and little energy will be stored for
others
- proteins that are denatured loses their
function
- ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS, BUT NOT ALL
PROTEINS ARE ENZYMES

c. TERTIARY - 3rd degree, alpha helix & beta MODES OF SUBSTRATE: ACTIVE SITE BINDING
pleated sheets are joined together, whole OF ENZYMES
molecule folding, not functional Lock and Key Model - fits perfectly into
active site
Induced-fit Model - active site conforms to - DNA, RNA, Protein
its substrate’s shape, adjusts, enzyme can - transfers information
attach to any substrate = changing shape - 23 chromosomes
of active site
DNA
PROCESS OF ENZYME REACTIONS - double stranded chain
Enzymes speed up the reaction by - deoxyribonucleic
lowering the activation energy. - spiral forming the double helix structure

OPTIMUM ENZYME ACTIVITY RNA

- Enzyme can only catalyze a reaction in a
specific environment
- all enzymes have a specific oea: works
best in their particular temp or pH
COFACTORS
- zinc
- from food supplements
- inorganic molecules: hemoglobin
- helps enzyme/protein to function
appropriately if substrate or enzyme is not
enough
COENZYMES
- NADP
- organic molecules: hydrogen, oxygen
- helps enzyme/protein to function
appropriately if substrate or enzyme is not
enough
- single stranded chain
- ribonucleic
- unstable, denature quickly
MONOMER: NUCLEOTIDES
- joined 2gether to form long chain:
DNA/RNA
- phosphate
- pentose
- nitrogenous
Replication & transcription = nucleic acid is
read from 5’-3’ (five frime to 3 prime)
DNA = double stranded = strands run
anti-parallel to each other

ENZYME INHIBITORS
- stops the function
- used in case that the enzyme is abundant
in the body and disrupt normal bodily
functions

COMPETITIVE
- inhibitor attaches itself to the active
site/same binding site, blocks its function
- substate binding is blocked
- competes for the place

INCOMPETITIVE
- attaches to different binding site, so
doesn’t work
- substitute can bind, but reaction is
blocked

PROTEINS: DIGESTION

4. NUCLEIC ACID
- central dogma of replication
- blueprint
- storage of information: genes
- present in all cells of body
- produce proteins