Islam

Origins
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Social conditions
- Arabian peninsula was made up of disorganised nomadic tribes with no unified governance
- Tribes had many unethical social practices; mistreatament of women, slavery, infanticide
- Early muslims referred to this era as an age of darkness which Muhammad lifted them from
Religious beliefs
- Some jewish, chrisrian & zorosastrian communities
- Dominant religious belief was polytheism → Muhammad’s preaching of monotheism was groundbreaking
Mecca and Medina
- 2 holiest cities in islam
- The cities were very different before the introduction of Islam
- Mecca
● Commercial trade hub and major pilgrimage site for polytheistic tribes
● Muhammad lived, worked and received the Qur'an from Allah here
● The Quraysh tribe dominated Mecca and opposed Muhammad’s preaching of islam
● They feared islam would hurt the religious & economic activities of Mecca, which they benefitted
from
● Muhammad was accused of betrayal because he was from the Quraysh tribe and was persecuted
for this
- Medina
● In the face of persecution, Muhammad moved to Medina
● Inhabited by jewish and christian communities
● His preaching of monotheism was less controversial here, allowing islam to flourish
● First islamic community established here

The Prophet Muhammad

Early life
- Born around 570 CE into the quraysh tribe of mecca
- Orphaned at a young age, grew up with uncle Abu Talib, a travelling trader
- He became a trader, he gained a reputation for being very trustworthy
Call to prophethood
- He was known to isolate himself for days to meditate
- While meditating in a cave near Mecca, the angel Jibril appeared and told him he was chosen as the
Prophet of Allah
- Allah’s teachings revealed to Muhammad gradually over 23 years
- Muhammad’s followers memorised the revelations and compiled them into the Qur'an
- “It is He (Allah) who sent his messenger with guidance and the religion of truth.” - Surah 48:28
The Hijrah
- After 13 years of persecution in Mecca, Muhammad moved to Medina and became a respected leader
- The Hijrah is Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina
- Medina was a more open and cosmopolitan city where muhammad’s new religious beliefs could be
openly declared and embraced
- Islam and its followers grew from hundreds to thousands in medina
Mecca & Medina
- In mecca muhammad was an outcast and persecuted
- In medina he held a respected role as a religious and political leader
- Islam grew from an alternative religious belief in Mecca to a way of life in Medina
- Mecca: basic beliefs & practices
● The meccan revelations mostly outlined the basic beliefs & practices of islam such as;
● Tawhid (belief in one god) and Salat (daily prayer)
- Medina: specific rules of behaviour
 ● Revelations became concerned with the laws of muslim life as a whole
● Laws about marriage, business, inheritance
Death
- Muhammad died in medina
- His death sparked a huge expansion of islam
- Some of his senior followers spread islam throughout the arabian peninsula, parts of africa, europe and
asia
- Muhammad didn’t clearly appoint his successor, creating confusion & conflict between 2 main groups
who wanted different leadership
- The conflict led to a divide between the 2 groups, later known as Sunni and Shi’a muslims

Muhammad: Seal of the Prophets and Role Model

Seal of the Prophets
- Muhammad is the last prophet of islam, taught the final and complete version of it
- He came to reveal the final monotheistic faith (and the Qur'an) and correct any previous revelations that
had been lost, changed or corrupted over time
- “Muhammad is…the Messenger of Allah and last of the prophets…” - Surah 33:40
- He was a wise and charismatic leader, carved a new path for monotheism by preaching/teaching Allah’s
final message of submission
- We know this through the Hadiths, these are the recorded words and actions of muhammad which were
memorised and written down by his followers
Significance as a role model today
- He became a role model for his followers who sought to emulate everything he did
- Muslims who feel persecuted by islamophobia look to muhammad and try to emulate his behaviour since
he was also oppressed when introducing islam to mecca
- humanity
● He was an ordinary human before becoming the final prophet
● Muslims share the same struggles, experiences, morality and life choices as muhammad
● Muhammad had no supernatural powers, just a very deep connection to allah
● He is a real model of good muslim conduct
- character
● He is thought of as the very best of mankind
● He is described as being equivalent to the Qur'an, ie. as excellent as the divine word of god
● He was a good speaker, community leader, respected businessman and deeply moral
● Since Muhammad is the closed person to allah, muslims believe they can become closer to allah by
emulating muhammad’s character

Development of Islam under the Caliphate

- The caliphate is a political-religious state made up of the Muslim community and any lands and peoples
conquered by it
- The caliph is the political and religious leader of the caliphate and considered the successor of
Muhammad
- All muslims agree on the first 4 caliphs after muhammad;
1. Abu Bakr; companion of muhammad, united muslim tribes and kept them united after
muhammad’s death, the only rightly guided caliph that wasn’t assassinated
2. Umar; companion of muhammad, oversaw first great expansion of islam to Jerusalem, Syria,
Persia and Egypt
3. Uthman; companion of Muhammad, born from noble household called the Umayyads, oversaw
inscription of the Qur'an into written form
4. Ali; cousin & son-in-law of muhammad
● After Uthman was assassinated, a member from his clan felt that Ali had done little to
punish Uthman’s assassins and sought vengeance
● This led to the first Muslim civil war and Ali’s assassination
● Ali’s claim to succession was controversial and contested, leading to the Sunni/Shi’a divide
Sunni/Shi’a Divide
- The 2 main sects of islam
- The main factors dividing them were the question of succession and the importance of Muhammad’s
famiy & lineage
- Sunnis decided the caliph shouldn’t have to be a descendant of muhammad, but just the most suitable
man for the job; they chose Abu Bakr to be the first caliph
- The Shi’a believed that Ali should’ve been the first caliph because of his familial relationship to
muhammad
- Shi’a muslims believe that muhammad’s descendents are divinely chosen and infallible, meaning they
can’t sin, which makes them perfect leaders
- After Ali’s assassination the Sunnis and Shi’a split and chose different leaders

Development of Islam after the Sunni/Shi’a Divide

- The sunnis founded the Umayyad dynasty (from the tribe Uthman was from) and continued the
expansion of islam through conquest
- The Shi’a caliphs became known as ‘Imams’ with holy status, as they were all descendants of muhammad
and Ali, instead of a caliphate they ruled an imamate.

Principal Beliefs - The Articles of Faith

Oneness of Allah (Tawhid)
- Tawhid is the belief in the oneness of allah and the belief in monotheism
- Its the most important article of faith as its the basis of islamd as a monotheistic religion
- All other islamic beliefs are built on tawhid
Tawhid in the Qur'an
- “Say, ‘He is Allah, (who is) One, Allah the Eternal, the absolute He neither begets nor is He Begotten, Nor is
there to Him any equivalent.” - Surah 112
- “He neither begets nor is He begotten,”
● basically means allah can’t be associated with anyone/anything else
● begets = reproduce, begotten = be born (allah wasn’t born & doesn’t have children)
● Allah doesn’t share power with anyone/anything else
● Allah is ONE power, comparable to christianity holy trinity
- “Allah bears witness that there is no god but he, and (so do) the angels and those possessed of knowledge,
maintaining his creation with justice; there is no god but he, the mighty, the wise.” - Surah 3:18
The Importance of Tawhid
- Shirk
● The act of believing in gods other than allah
● Polytheism has been called shirk in islam since the adoption of islam to Mecca
● Shirk is the worst sin a muslim can commit, its a direct contradiction to Tawhid
- Submission
● Tawhid teaches Muslims they must submit to allah
● Belief in Tawhid establishes allah as the one and only creator & sustainer of the universe
● Muslims have a duty to submit to allah’s will, in other words to live and behave as allah desires

Angels (Malaikah)
The nature of the Malaikah
- Angels are genderless and made from light, they have wings, created before humans
- Their primary function is to be completely obedient to allah
- Angels are immortal, incapable of sinning and don’t have free wil
- Angels don’t eat, drink or reproduce like humans
The role of Malaikah in islam
- Guardians → they are believed to guard 3 things;
1. The throne of allah in heaven
2. The gates of heaven and hell
 3. Protect muslims from danger and evil
- Messengers
● Angels relay and reveal information from allah to prophets, who then share it with humanity
● The angel Jibril delivered the Qur'an to Muhammad
- Record Keepers
● “Our messengers are with them recording” - Surah 43:80
● keep records of people’s thoughts and actions, for Allah’s reference on the day of judgement
The importance of Malaikah
- Qur'an states that all muslims must believe in angels
- “The messenger has believed in what was revealed to him from his lord, and (so have) the believers. All of
them have believed in Allah and his angels and his books and his messengers…” - Surah 2:285
- Foundational belief
● Belief in angels is an article or faith
● islam built on revelation of Qur'an by angel Jibril to muhammad
- Comfort & caution
● The idea of a guardian angel can be comforting
● The idea of a record keeping angel can motivate muslims to be better
- Role models
● Angels are good role models for muslims as they areperfectly obedient to allah
● Angels inspire humans to resist the temptation to sin and prioritise allah in their lives

Books of Allah
What is the Qur'an?
- Qur'an is the literal word of allah, revealed to Muhammad by the angel Jibril
- Teaches/guides muslims on how to live a good life & helps them feel closer to allah, it also contains;
● Essential teachings about allah
● Stories about the prophets
● How to act as a good muslim
● The consequences of good & evil (in this life & afterlife)
- The Qur'an was revealed in arabic, so arabic is considered to be sacred
- The Qur'an’s beauty & meaning gets lost when its translated → only true Qur'an is in arabic
- There are 114 Surahs in the Qur'an, organised from longest to shortest, based on their number of verses
How is the Qur'an treated and used?
- Muslims treat the Qur'an with the highest respect in the following ways;
● Its beautifully decorated
● Wrapped in cloth for protection
● Stored on a higher shelf than other books
● Hands are washed before touching
● A special stand is used when reading
- The Qur'an is read from during every prayer, including private, public, home and mosque prayers
Other Holy Books
- all of these prophets appear in either jewish or christian tradition
- These revelations are viewed as build-ups to the final revelation of the Qur'an
- The scriptures are sacred, but all viewed as lost, corrupted or changed, so they’re unreliable
- Only the Qur'an is the pure word of allah
- Prophet Ibrahim
● The Suhuf aka the scrolls of abraham
● Mentioned in the Qur'an
● Scrolls are considered lost
- Prophet Musa
● The Tawrat, aka Moses and the Torah
● “Indeed, We sent down the Torah, in which was guidance and light.” - Surah 5:44
● Muslims value the Tawrat, but don’t necessarily follow its teachings, as its believed to have been
changed & corrupted over time
 - Prophet Dawud
● The Zabur aka the Psalms of David in christan and jewish traditions
● “And to David we gave the book (of Psalms)” - Surah 4:163
● Also believed to have changed beyond recognition over time
- Prophet Isa
● The Injil aka gospel of jesus
● Mentioned in Qur'an
● corrupted & changed, no longer contains the exact words given to Isa by Allah

Prophets (Risalah) - Rusul

What is Risalah
- Refers to the belief in the prophets and messengers of islam
- Muslims believe allah sends messengers & prophets to teach islam & guide them on the right path
- Prophets are the way allah communicates with humanity
Who are the prophets?
- There are at least 25 prophets named in the qur’an
- The most important prophetsare all messengers; delivered holy books, teachings & commandments
- Important prophets; Adam, Ibrahim (abraham), Isma’il (ishmael), Musa (moses), Dawud (david), Isa
(jesus)
- Muhammad is the final and most important prophet in islam
Importance of prophethood
- Prophets signify that islam is not a new religion
● Allah is believed to have revealed monotheistic scriptures to messengers throughout time
● “They say, ‘Be Jews or Christians you will be guided.’ Say, ‘Rather, we follow the religion of
Abraham, inclining toward truth, and he was not of the polytheists.’” - Surah 2:135
● Muslims consider themselves to be followers of the same religion abraham taught
- They act as guides and role models
● Prophets are the chosen ones and are infallible (can’t sin)
● They depict the perfect life and guide humanity away from sin & towards the rightly guided path

Akhira (afterlife)
What is Akhirah
- Muslims believe that we live 2 lives; one on earth and the other in the afterlife
- Afterlife is eternal & everlasting, behaviour on earth determines their afterlife
Stages between death and akhirah
- Death; body is buried, soul is taken by angel of death (iz’rael)
- Questioning; allah sends 2 angels to question the person on their behaviour on earth
- The wait; person waits for Day of Judgement, wait depends on answers to angels’ questions; correct
questions → soul waits peacefully, incorrect questions → soul tormented by angels, known as
punishment of the grave
Day of Judgement
- Last Hour; end of the world and humanity, signifies first temporary life has ended
- Day of Resurrection; all souls are resurrected & gathered, marks beginning of afterlife
- Day of Judgement; judged by allah for their actions, determines type of afterlife they will have
- ‘On the day of judgement, we shall call together all human beings and they will not be dealt with unjustly in
the least.’ - Surah 17:71
- Jannah; those who live good lives are rewarded with jannah (paradise), qur’an describes it as ‘Gardens of
pleasure’
- Jahannam; those who have done bad deeds are sent to Jahannam as punishment, qur’an describes it as a
place of fire and endless suffering
- They believe allah is merciful; he may forgive and let people into jannah, people sent to jahannam may not
be there forever as allah could eventually show mercy
Importance of Akhirah
- Belief in afterlife creates sense of responsibility to behave well & avoid sin
 - Gives mulsims a purpose in life (be good & follow allah’s rules)
- Purpose is incentivised by a chance of getting into paradise or fear of hell
- Brief nature of this life encourages them to be good in preparation for afterlife
- Belief in afterlife encourages them to repent for wrongdoings because allah is merciful and will forgive

Predestination/fate (Al-Qadr)
What is Al-Qadr
- The belief that allah knows everything; past, present and future
- Allah predetermined the fate of everything and has knowledge over all aspects of the universe
- Reinforces allah’s omnipotence, “Allah is competent over all things” - Surah 46:33
Al-Qadr and free will
- Allah has control over everything & has predetermined everything vs our ability to have control over
choices, thoughts and actions
- Muslims believe that their control over their life co-exists with allah’s control over everything
- Day of judgement; allah will judge on actions and choices, this implies free will
Sunni and Shi’a beliefs
- Differences come down to the extent to which free will is believed to exist
- Sunni
● Allah has determined everything that will happen
● Its impossible for humans to choose anything other than what allah has decided
● Humans don’t have free will, our choices appear to be free to us
- Shi’a
● Shi’a criticise sunni understanding as it contradicts concept of day of judgement
● Humans have real free will
● Allah knows what choices humans will make and could intervene, but allows humans to make
their own decisions
● Humans are accountable to on the day of judgement
Relevance to daily life
- Muslims express belief in al-qadr through the term Insha’Allah (if allah wills)
- Saying you’ll do something doesn’t mean it will happen, only happens if allah wills it

Sacred Texts & Writings

The Qur’an
Four main characteristics
1. Literal word of allah
- Has divine authorship and was revealed to muhammad by jibril
- Revelation of qur’an; “it is not but a revelation, taught to him be one intense in strength…and he
revealed to his servant…” - Surah 53:4-10
2. Most divine authority
- First source of guidance for ethical dilemmas
- Teachings must be followed and be first point of reference
3. Incontestable
- Qur’an overrides any other form of authority
- Teachings can be supplemented with Hadith or an Imam’s advice, but it can never be contested
4. Incorruptible
- Many muslim books are said to be lost or changed
- Qur’an is uncorrupted and final
The Qur’an as the source of principal beliefs
- Source of the 6 articles of faith (sunni)
- Source of 5 roots of usul ad-din (shi’a)
How the Qur’an is used in daily life
- Formal worship
● Passages of the qur’an are recited during daily salat and friday prayer
 - Informal worship
● Qur’an is used for education; used in classes and lectures at the mosque
● Khutbah; informal sermon before friday prayer, lesser known verses are used so people reconnect
to the qur’an
● Calligraphy; muslims show respect for qur’an by practicing the sacred art of islamic calligraphy

The Hadith
What is the Hadith
- Recorded sayings and actions of muhammad that were transmitted orally by his companions and
followers and eventually written down by scholars
- Records aspects of muhammads life; sermons he gave, questions he answered, small details
- Muhammad’s way of life is known as the sunnah which is recorded in the hadith
- Recording of muhammad’s life is important because he is the most examplary human and the perfect role
model
How does the hadith relate to the qur’an

How is the hadith authenticated

- To ensure accuracy, a structure and system of authentication was set in place to verify hadiths
- Sahih al-bukhari and sahih muslim are generally considered the most famous collections of hadith
Significance of the hadith
- Hadith offers a way to embody the prophets character
- Important source of authority, instructs muslims on appropriate behaviour (etiquette, marriage,
commerce, rituals)
- Some sunni muslims avoid relying on the hadith as they’re unsure of their autenticity and reliability
- Shi’a muslims are also wary of some hadith, depending on the witness → prefer hadiths transmitted
through Ali and his descendents, rather than muhammad’s wives and companions

Core Ethical Teachings

Principal ethical teachings in Islam
Sources of ethical teachings
- Muslims follow a code of laws called Shari’a Law
- Process of examining ethical issues according to shari’a law is called islamic jurisprudence
- Aim of islamic jurisprudence is to determins whether and action or belief is hala, or haram
- Ethical teachings help determine what is halal and haram
Sources of authority
- The Qur’an
● First and most important source of ethical teachings
● Primary source of islamic ethical principles and values, its the literal word of allah therefore
authority cant be contested
- The Hadith
● The sunnah is the way of life of Muhammad
● Made up of the hadith (recorded sayings and actions of the prophet)
- Ijma’
● Ijma’ means consensus
● Muslim scholars and religious leaders coming to a shared decision on an ethical problem
● Scholars and leaders can provide answers to contemporary issues not defined in the qur’an or
sunnah
- Qiyas
● Use of analogical reasoning to provide answers that aren’t defined by the Qur’an or the sunnah
● Relies on finding a precedence which can be applied forward to a newer ethical issue
● Eg. use of cocaine/heroin not mentioned in qur’an/sunnah → alcohol is banned in both → assume
this applies to other substances
Application of ethical teachings
- Allah has control over life and death (Suruh 3:156)
● commonly used to determine bioethical issues like euthanasia as haram
- Human life is inherently sacred (Suruh 6:151)
● acts like murder or suicide or haram
- All of Allah’s creation has dignity (Suruh 4:126)
● extended to environmental ethics and issues of human rights
Ethical Foundations of Islam
- The fundamental principle that underlies Muslim ethics is Islam’ submissiveness to Allah.
- Surrender to the will of Allah is the most fundamental Islamic value
- A Muslim must try ones hardest to establish good according to the order fixed by Allah because each
person is God’s agent on earth and has a responsibility to Allah
Ethics in Islam
- Some duties such as almsgiving, may be both ‘Ibadat and Mu’amalat
- Ethics are essentially grounded in the Qur’an and are supported by those other writings that give
guidance such as the Hadith.
- As Islam grew and developed, the rules for life were written down and developed more systematically
into what is now known as Shari' a law
Ibadat
- Duties to Allah
 - Matters such as prayer, fasting and pilgrimages are ‘Ibadat
Mu’amalat
- Duties to human beings and relationships
- Areas such as family life, commercial practices and the penal code are Mu’amalat
Halal and haram
- Muslim ethical judgment ultimately leads to a decision about what is permitted (halal) and what is
forbidden (haram)

Expression of Faith
Shahadah
- Most foundational islamic expressions, first of the 5 pillars
- Tawhid → belief/faith, Shahadah → expression/practice
- Declaration of belief in the one true god
- declaration of belief in the prophet muhammad
- Shi’a also have the declaration of belief in Ali as the first caliph
- Statement of faith; “There is no god but allah, and muhammad is the messenger of allah. (and ali is the
friend of god. [shi’a])”
- “Allah witnesses that there is no deity except him” - Surah 3:18
Significance of shahadah
- Shahadah has an existential, universal importance
- Reciting shahadha is the only condition required of a person to covert to islam
- It plays a significant and ongoing role in the personal life of muslims, without it no other pillar of faith
would exist
- Without it there is no means to express your faith as a muslim

Salat
The basics
- Salat is known as daily prayer
- The most literal expression of islamic faith
- “…prayer prohibits immorality and wrongdoing and the remembrance of allah is greater” - Surah 29:45
Timing and location
- Muslims pray at 5 different designated intervals
- Prayers can be performed anywhere, except Jummah (friday prayer) which must be performed at the
mosque
- Prayers can be combined, this is common for Shi’a
- Muslims must pray towards mecca
Ritual actions
- Ritual washing is known as wudu or ablution
- Muslims purify themselves physically and spiritually for prayer
- Prayer cycles are called rak’ahs
- Rak’ahs involve reciting the qur’an and performing specific movements (kneeling/bowing)
Significance of Salat
- Daily prayer 5 times a day gives rhythm and structure to muslim life
- It ensures adherents are always mindful of and focused on their submission to allah
- Salat connects the mind to the body, giving a physical expression which strengthens the psiritual,
emotional and mental expression
- Salat maintains communication with allah , which in trun encourages taqwa (piety) and discourages
shirk (sin)
- It shapes daily life, connects physicality with spirituality and is a means of consistenly communication
with allah
Zakat
- Zakat is charitable almsgiving and is the third pillar of islam
- Muslims give 2.5% of their income to the poor and needy
- “Zakah…are only for the poor and for the needy…for bringing hearts together…an obligation imposed by
allah.” - Surah 9:58-60
- ^ this emphasises that zakat is an obligatory practice
- Zakat is hard to enforce in the modern world, so relies on the honesty of individuals
- Shi’a muslims also pay khums which is 20% of their yearly profits earned
Significance of Zakat
- The giver
● Zakat is a commitment that muslims make to follow allah’s law
● It encourages muslims to be humble and generous
- The receiver
● The receivers are encouraged to be grateful for the sustenance of allah
● The needy feel more connected to their faith in the face of financial adversity
- equity
● The muslim community redistributes wealth where it is needed
● It is a reminder that everyone is equal under allah
- The ummah
● More equity leads to a greater sense of being part of the ummah, which spans across culture, class,
wealth and other barriers

Sawm
- The practice of fasting from before sunrise to after sunset during the month of ramadan
- Suhur; meal eaten before sunrise
- Iftar; meal eaten after sunset
- Its an obligatory act of worship, “O you who have believed, decreed upon you is fasting…that you may
become righteous…” - Surah 2:183
- Muslims abstain from food and water, but also from smoking, sexual intercourse and bad thoughts
- Sawm is closer to self-control, rather than just fasting
- Children, the elderly and pregnant, breastfeeding and menstruarting women are exempt from fasting
- Those who don’t fast (above) have to make up missed days at other times or donate food to the needy
Significance of Sawm
- Ramadan is a month to reconnect with history, allah, family and the wider muslim communtiy in the
shared practice of sawm
- Connection to islamic history
● Sawm marks pivotal events in islamic history such as Laylat-al-qadr (night of destiny, 1st night of
revelation of qur’an)
- Connection to allah
● Muslims reconnect with allah through the submission of physical and moral discipline
- Connection to family/community
● Muslims come togeyher to celebrate with family and support the community

Hajj
- The major pilgrimage to teh holy city of mecca
- The journey is both physical and spiritual, it should be completed once by every muslim
- “Due to allah from the people is a pilgrimage to the house - for whoever is able to” - Surah3:97
- rituals of Hajj are underpinned by core of islam; submitting to allah, hajj is a holistic expression of islam
- Rituals;
● Entering a state of Ihram
● Circling the Ka’aba 7 times anticlockwise in Tawaf
● Running between the hills 7 times and drinking from the well in Sa’y
● Prayers at Mt Arafat
● Stoning the devil at Mina
Significance of Hajj
- When a muslim completes Hajj, they fulfil their pillars of faith and achieve the status of Hajji, a lifelong
goal for muslims
- They believe that becoming a hajji also comes with religious rewards and benefits
- A hadith states that those who perform hajj ‘will return as if born anew’
- As a hajji you get to start over and be reborn as sinless
- Hajjis receive special consideration from allah on the day of judgement
- Hajj helps bring together the ummah
- The unity is displayed when muslims wear white garments as they adopt the state of ohram, symbolising
that allah doesn’t distinguish between nationalities, cultures, races or classes; everyone is equal