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    SOILTES

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    Benny Alconn

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    SOILTEST, INC. EVANSTON, ILLINDIS 60202 U.S.A —j*) se GEOPHYSICAL TRAINING PROGRAMS OFFERED BY SOILTEST Training in the throry, operation and application of a wide vatiety of grophyrieal and related instruments is now available 10 interesird persons at Soilteit’s Training Centr und Proving Gmund lorated neir Baraboo, Wikcontin, Three-day taintog se sony are scheduled daring te spring, simmer and fall months. Subjects cavered at the vessios include use and application of the R-150 ‘Terra Seoul, R11? Seisinic Timer, MD-1 and MDS Engineering Seismngreph; the R-10 Strwla-Scous, R-30 Michimbo and the ER2 Blectrical Reshtivity Meters: ploe other seated ‘equipment used in subsurface sxploration and investigation. The ‘objective of these sessions is to provide taining in shallow depth subsurface exploration o those interes auch as engiers, geole- its, goverment penoundl, contractors, and others, All wining facilis, Jodging and meals aie on the dee of Soll tex’s GW acte Proving Ground and Training Center located just rurside Barshoo, Wisconsin in the geologically-sigificant “driftless area.” A wide variation in the subsurface conditions of this arcs anakes it ideal for such training “Tho clasrr usally beginon Wednesday eveolng snd mun throug swoon og Saturday, The waining is previded free of charge by Soiltest; however, there ig-a $45.00 change fer meals and lodging nude for each trsinon. Application forms will herent upon request TYPICAL TRAINING SESSION AT BARABOO Atypical eraning seniun at the Marahon tility inclndse both lassroom and eld werk. During the three-day penod partiipancs tee givet a somprahmndion intridaction 19 geophysical insttuinents and related equipment pins adequate tine to become faniliar with ‘ecb srutrumenty operation and applications. At the conclusion of the training resign, the ches is raken ona combination geological tour of the area and 2 practical applications seston, Scone rom faites’ FA38 Sound Fite ‘Subsurface Expleration Using te Refraction Searoeraph FOR FURTHER INFORMATION Registration forme and thr Tatsst Training schedules together swith further iaferisation can Be obtsined by writing to Boiltes, Inc EARTH RESISTIVITY MANUAL SOILTEST, INC, (Ws, WIRD ARAMLYO. FERANDEZ 22U5 LEE STREET aeavege ~ auanaco EVANSTON, ILL. 60202, U.S.A. Subsidiery of CENCO INSTRUMENTS CORPORATION, Telephone: Aree Cede 222/869-5500 Cable: SOWTEST-EVANSTON + Telex 25-3745 Copyrigh: © 3968 Soihest, inc. Al) Rights 4. Saitnst® ie 4 repioctrad Trademark of Solliest. toe Printed in 8.8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION .. : 3 IV, INTERPRETIVE METTODS, A. Qualilative Interpretation of IL RESISTIVITY THEORY Saunding Data A. Theory . ai 3 1 Introduction 14 ‘Two Layer Structures B, Depth of Penetration 6 . a, Low Resistivity Layer over High Resistivity Layer C, Resistivity Instruments and Readouts Available 6 b, High Resistivity Layer over Low Resistivity Layer AG IIL, FIELD USE 3, Three Layer Structure BOM yers of Sivveyn 2 Beds 4. Effect of Cll or Road Cut 24 5. Eifect of Gravel Deposit...--.28 1, Electrical Profiling 6, Besgting 1 rofiling Aeros a a. Introduction : Reece a ieee Single Electrode Interval 7. Redaisity Backups a ©, Double Flectrole Interval B, Correlation of Resistivity Data to Traverse oS came B Matenals ence 28 i. Comparison at Single and C, Guiding Principles for Quantitative Double Electroile Interval Interpretation 30 Traverse: cece 8 ster 1, Quantitative Taterpretation of 2, Bleetrical Sounding 9 antag Date B. Electrode Arrangements peel ueainetion a ‘ 2, Ohm-Feet Method... at 1. Introduction a 3. Moore Cumulative Method .....33 2 Wennet CORTERESOR = Barnes Layer Method omucce----36 3, Schlumberger Configuration .....12 5, Curve Matehi 39 4, Comparison of Wenner and 4 Schlumberger Configurations ....12 ese ONS: A. Complementary sage of Seismic iG: Eker sidane and Resistivity Surveys At SOU ty B. Quarry Rock Prospecting AB 2, Recommended Flectrode OS Sere Set Nore Re eee ee eesicaiey Wark als 1b, Sand and Gravel Prespecting 44 3. Recommended Electrode Sea 2 iver dies a Spacings for Barnes Tayer Ba Moet otter Sia Method and Moore Cumulative Resistivity Method 5 13 VI, REFERENCES est EARTH RESISTIVITY MANUAL I. INTRODUCTION rical resistivity method of subsurface though widely used, has not al- ways been weil naderstood. The method has great value in several fields; civil engineering, water supply, construction, geology, z materiak prospecting, and athers. In the past, misurderstandings eoneernimg the advant- ages, limitations. and uses of the method have resulted in eanfusion in understanding the meth- o's potential, and have led tn disappointments. This mannal will explore the capabilities and Umitations of the electrical resistivity method. A brief deseription of the theory underlying the resistivity approach will be found in Section 11 ‘The field usage of equipment will be described in Section 111, with the major field procedures, and electrode configurations presented in deta Qualitative and quantitative methods of inter- fon of the readings will be disenssed in Scerion TV. A few of the many applications of the method will he developed in Section V. ‘The manual is intended principally to serve as 2 source nf information for the oceasional user Of clectrical resistivity rather than the profes- sional, Tt is hoped, however, thet the material will be useful to professional workers in eagi- neering and geologic felds as well. Reierences are given in the fina! section to publications which supply greater details of the method and ifs applications. ‘This manual will not cover the Pperating techniques of particular electri sistivity meters, ax they are detailed in the oper- ion tustructions supplied with the instrument, Subsurface conditions have been investigated using the electrical resistivity method for about five decades, sometimes successfully, sometimes aol. There is evidence that the lack of success jn past resistivity investigations can be traced ly to the improper interpretaton and pres- entation of test cata Ii is probable, however, that the limitations and merils of resislivily surveys have not been lly rerognized. tn the past, the advocates of the resistivity method have tended to deny the existence of any linitations. As a result, too many blind alleys have been entered needlessly. For, as is admitted today, imitations do exist in instrument surveys as well as in the different methods of conducting surveys and interpreting and presenting test data. Recoghilion of ttese limitations has spurred new advances to overcome them, As a result, wore complete exploitation is being made of re~ sistivity testing as a means of subsurface investi- gation The edvantages of the method are numerous and range from initial low cost to complete ports ability on the job, If properly conducted, a sur- vey will provide valuable data on the subsuriac conditions, and, with only a small amount of ex perience, realistic predictions ean be made based on the resistivity readings of the type of material present, Il. RESISTIVITY THEORY Resistivity is a fundamental property of the material which characterizes that material al- most as completely as its density. Fieli resist yf measurements of such materials as cla nds, gravels, various Lypes of sedimentary and igneuns rocks, ¢tc., aliord an opportunity for dise Ungnisting one type from another withoat make ing a physical eseayation. The field use is sed (A) upon the instrument's ability to introduce elec- tical currents into the ground at various known depths and to measure the resistivily at those depths, ‘Phe relationship hetween resistivily and the an be undor- nivré lamiliar quantity, resistance, stood by reference 10 Figure 1, The electrical a RESSTANCE in) E Impressen a [77 VOLTAGE cuRRENT FLOW FIGURE 1; Illustrating the relationship between resistivity and cesistance, sesistivity of any material is delinel as the resist« ance in ohms, hetween opposite faces of a unit cube of that material, If R is the resistance of alilock of conductive material (Figure 1) haying a length L in a cross sectional area A, then the resistivity, p, is expressed by the formula e= PAM. Thus, resistivity, being a fundamental pro- perty of the material, is independent of the volume whereas resistance depends upon the shape and the size uf the specimen. The condic- tance of a material iy defined as the reciprocal of its resistance, ‘The units of resistivity are ohms multiplied by length, Ohmfeet or olim-centimeters ate most commonly used (| ohm-cm = 0328 ohm-feet) The units of conductance are Mhns, In order to explain the resistivity method in its simplest case. consider a very large (techn- ically. semi-infinite) solid with uniform resis p. Four electrodes are pushed into th inaterial at positions A, B, C, and D ag shows Tigure 2. A battery connected to the outer two electrodes (positions A and B) delivers an elec~ trical current, I, into the solid material, When cuttent is introdticed into a material which has resistance, a poietilial gradient, Vis developed between any two points in the material. TI potential gradient may be measured by a volt- meter altached to ihe midile electrodes (posi- tions C and 1). his arrangement (Figure 2) represents a yery crue electrical resistivity unit, A resist- inity instruments one and only function is to measure the ratio V/I Ohm's Law (R= WI), this ratio has resistance wnils, In cficet. then, the resistivity method (5 4 field spyplication of Ofm’s Law ‘The carrent Dowing into the earth spreads out vertically and horizontally, somewhat in the martuer in which water from a garden hose 4 curser wercr aarteny 2 +t vouMEreR, FIGURE 2: Schematic diagram of are instrument, ivity would flow into a porous sand layer Hemi spherical equipotential surfaces develop it the material, like that of Figure 2, hus iiform re sistivity. The yelume of material through which the current passes is proportional to (he distance between the four electrodes. ‘This implies that the depth of the material inchided in the meas urement is proportional to the distance betwee electrodes. ‘Thus, it is possible to measure the resistance of a volume of catth proportional to the known distance between the clectrodes Figure 3 shows a vertical cross-acetion of the earth throngh the line of the clsctrodes and presents a few elecisieal field lines or paths of current fow. Only the two current elecirod have been shown in the drawing. Figure 4 shows the same phenomena ax viewed looleing down onto the surface of the earth, The pa terns shiwen in Figures $ and 4 result only if the snaterial has an ideally aniform resistivity. Any deviation from uniformity will casse changes in the pattetn of curren flow Referring to Figure 2. the potential at ele: trode © resulcing from the current floyr will be: ro oe tale € to current electrode A, and ry is the dis- tance from electrode € to electrode B. Similarly, the potential at electrode D aaa) ® Where ry is the distance from Tl to-A and 1, the distance from D ta Uh ! FIGURE 3: Vertical crote-settion of the earth showing the electric field lines (paths of current flow) as solid lines. The dashed linas represent the equipoiential surfaces, Arrows on the field lines denote direction of current flow. ‘The potential diference, ¥, measured by the voltmeter between electrodes € and D is simply Ve = Ve. Subtracting equation 2 from equation Land sulving for o gives: a 1 7 iy 7D Ca ae ‘This is the fundamental equation of the tc ET eee in tonmy of quantities which can be measured (¥, 1, and the ulectrode separation distances) As lotg as the electrode spacing is kept con- stant, this equation is independent of the posi tions of the electrodes and je not aifected when the cutvent and potential clectrodes are inter, changed. With equation 3, it is possible to de- termine the true Figure 2, Remember that this material is con- sidered to have a unilorm resistivity, When (he resistivity is nal constant throughout the ma- terial, the effective resistivily as computed from equation 3 will vaty with the position of elec trodes. In the case of a non-uniform mraierial, the value given by equation 3 is called the appar- ent resistivity, ivity of the material in FIGURE 4: Plan view of the earth showing the electric field lines (paths of current flow) at solid linas. The dashed lings surface arrows shew the direction of current flow. FIGURE A: Earth Resi As was pointed out earlier. various materials have different resistivity values. Since an ideal- Jy uniform subsurface fs rare, mnst of the work with the resistivity instruments is based upon apparent resistivity instead of true resistivity. The variations in the apparent resistivity. read: ings allow the nser of a resistivity meter to dis tinguish one type of subsurface material irom another. Tor nearly all earth materials. an esvential the: oretical fact to Keep in mind je thet resistivity decreases with increasing water content and/or increasing waler salinity. B. Deptt of Penetration “he depth of penetration of a resistivity sounding in a function of the spacing between two outer (current) clectrodes, Correlation Studies eoniucte:! to date indieaie that the depth of current penetration is nearly eqaivalont to the distance between adjoining electrodes, for depths above about LQ feet, Malott (1965) stated that “The results of 31,000 resistivity suandings and over 4,000 correlation borings have indicated thet the electrode spicing is eyval to the depth of investigation.” Subsuriace conditions can adversely inflnence the depth determination. If the boundaries ber tween substrata are erratic in their contours, re sistivity will tend to average ont the peaks and depressions. In contrast. a borehole will pron 6 ivity Meter - Model ER-2 vide exact depth information, However, under such conditions, the resiiits oj a herehale eannet be assumed to he representative of any depth he- yond the immediate area of the borehole. This suggests what has proven ts be @ salu able operating method. The resistivity surves are relied upon to provide most of the informa tion on suhsurlace conditions, but are supported with control fata gained from a iew boreholes The strength of the resistivity method—approx- imate depth informatinn over a wide area hines with the strengch of boring—exact depth information at one point -to provide greater in farmation than gan he acqsired using either method by ilseli, This (ype of program also cosls lees because fewer borings are required ani iL takes less me ihan does a comprehensive drilling and sampling program. C, Resistivity Instruments and Readouts Available here are several éifferent types of e! resistivity meters available fram Soilltest which can be used to determine the resistivity of sabe ace materials down tn depths of about 500 The four Soiltest units are: Table 1 ELECTRICAL mesieriviTy: meTER 1. #40 Sirate Sut colrival hme Rexieares (R) 2. ERE Elecrkal Eurth Resevity Ohms Roriance (2-RI 4. £20 Aichinho Mhor Conduchante (VR) 450 Strate Meter in olism: pees Til. FIELD USE A. Types There are two basic field procedures used with eal resistivity units: “slectrieal profiling” or “traversing” in which the electrode separa- tion remains constamt during the survey; and “electrical sounding’. in which the center of the electrode spread is maintained at a fixed loca- tion, and the electrode spacing, A, is increased. f Sutveys elect 1. Biectrical Profiling 2. INRODICTION ‘This method ix normally employed in a rapid survey of an area. It is particularly suited [or the following zpplications: prospecting for sand and gravel deposits, delineating the boundaries 7 gravel deposits, pwrospecting for ore .s, Ineation of faults nr fault zones, and Jo~ cation of stessly dipping contacts between dif ferent rock types or different types of earth ma terial In this field procedure, a suitable electrode spacing is chosen, and the same spacing is used at each station as the survey proceeds across the area, This is illustrated in Figure 5. Since the elicotive depth of investigation is related to the electrode spackig, she depth of investigation will essentially he constant for all of the readings. As the eurvey proceeds along the surface of the the changes in subsurface strata lying un- the path cr the survey and ahove a depth roughly equal to the electrate separation will be rellected by the readings. A profiling survey thought of as on “electrical trench” since deleels only lateral variations in subsurface conditions ‘The readings may be presented graphically in one oi two ways, [i the data are taken eloug a SURFACE OF THE EARTH FIGURE 5: Successive electrode lay-outs in a profiling survey. Apparent Resis {ohm-feet) ity 190 200 300 400 S00 600 700 800 Position of Center of Spread (feet) FIGURE 6 Apporant resistivity versus position of the center of the elacirode spread, for two values of elec- trode separation, A. single line, then the simple graphical presenta- tion shown in Tigure 6 is suitable. The appar- ent resistivity reading is graphed on ordinary rectangtlat coordinate (Cartesian) paper at the position of the center of the electrode spread, not at the position of +he frant or rear electrode ‘This permits comparison ef profiles for two or more values of the elecirode separation, A ‘The type of pesentation shown in igure 7 is appropriate where profiling data way taken along several paratlcl lines in order to prospect a given arca. The measured values are entered on a.map of the area, at the position of the center cf the spread, and then contoured to form an equal-resistivity contour map. ‘The boundaries ci a deposit can be correlated with the resistivity contours. This type of field procedure has proved belpiul in delincating aquifers, gravel de- posits, ete, Uhis form of the profiling method employs only one reading at cach station of the survey. Tr is used to determine if the relative resistivity characteristics of sulisarface matetials change from otte local atea to another, ‘The single elec- trode interval traverse may be used to search for a high resistivity anomaly in consistently low re sistivity materials, ot vice vetsa. ‘Lhe results of a single electrode interval sur- vey may he presented as follows: Table 2 earode Inter 7) Suu se asa Ce ae Ce ee Values for 27 Ro 1/R could oka hove been vied. Notice that stations 4 and 3 produced higher readings than the other locations. This stygests that the earth below stations 4 and 5 contains a higher resistivily material than the rest of the 6 DOUBLE ELECTRODE INTERVAL THAVERSE This form of the profiling method employs two electrode spacings — thus, ovo readings — at every station in the survey. A resistivity Lravetse using two electrode in- tervals can be conducted with any of the Soil- test units. However, all readings mus! be con- Yerted to (1/R) before final interpretation, Then, following the steps outlined in the Barnes layer aaa 100200 300 #1. enitent ine TH. No Stripping Sand & Gravel Electrode interval 20 ft. FIGURE 7: Contour maps of apparent resistivity reod- ings, for A = 20 fest. (Reprinted with permission from Wileox). Method {see Section [-D-4), the UR value the first interval reading is subtracted from WR value for the second and the difference divided into a constant (equal to the elect interval in feet times 191.5) to determine the sistivity. value of the layer in ohms-em, ‘The e stant 191.5 is equal to 2x times the number centimeters (30.5) per foot. The results of two example stations, each ing intervals of 10 and 35 feet, are Table 3 tay Ome cm araR 18 Mise (Constont=957 an 2503000 Station 2 35° 2970 074 con a7a7s0 Al station 1, a low resistivity material (somes what similar to that above it) occupies the layer between 30 and a5 feet, The layer at station 2 holds high resistivity material even though the 30 foot reading matehes that at stalion 1. This illustrates the ability of near-surlace deposits (o occasionally mask the presence of lower lying material in a profiling survey, The resistivity data compiled during a twor electrode interval traverse also may be interpr- ted using the ohm-feet method (sec Section TY= D-2). For station 1, the strong drop in resistiv- iy suggests that a betcer conducting material exists in the neighhorhood of the layer than near the surface, ‘The continually high and uniform readings al the second station implics the contin= tietion ofa high resistivity material LECTIODE INTERVAL TRAvenses The single interval traverse is faster and pro- vides most of the information given by the double interval traverse. A traverse using two. electrode spacings should be employed if the user is interested in the material ina laver at a given depth, or suspects that the materials lying fear the surface differ enough in resistivity characteristics (hat they would hide the material being sought under them, Tor both types, the essential point fo remem her is that the reading at only one station is largely worthless. Profiling is valuable only The position af the center ot the epreod Ix Fixed } ar Hh Jeeta { FIGURE B: Representative Electrode Positions During Sequence of Sounding Meccurements when the readings from many stations can be analysed Lo establish trends in the readings. In this way, areas of potential yalue may ls isolated for further study ‘The second point to keep in minl is that, ex- cept hy chance, the material at a particular depth will not have a resistivity identical to the read- ing, because, as was noted in Section II, the reading: represents @ weighted average oi all of the resistivities present. 2, Electrical Sounding Sounding, the second basic field procedure, is designed :o provide information on the variation in subsurface conditions with depth. Among the applications are: estimation of the variation of resistivity with depth; showing the sequence of high and low resistivity zones; estimation of depth to sand or gravel, to bedrock, to 4 water- hearing layer; and estimation of thickness of a layer. In this procedure, the center of the electrode spread remains at one spot while the electrode spacing is increased from one reading to the next. This is illustrated in Figure & The spac- ing hetween adjacent electrodes is always ejial ‘The spreud is always symmetrical about the cen ter position. Because the effective depth of investigation increases as the electrode spacing increases, the sottnding method ig extremely valuable for show- ing {he sequence of layers, for choosing the op- timum electrode spacing for profiling measiure- mers, or for establishing the presence or ab- sence of materials such as rock or gravel within adepth range, A little care must be taken if the method is used for quantitative depth calcula~ tions. A description will be given in Section TV- D of some of the techniques for quantitative ine terpretaton Where reliable depth information is required, an excellent ‘ield procedure is to combine elec trical cesistivity readings with the depth data provdided by a Soiltest engincering seisino- graph, This complementary usage will be de- serihed further in Se: There are several graphical methods of pre- seating sounding data. Iwo are shown in Fig- ure 8 The top graph uses ordinary rectangular coordinate (Cartesian) graph paper, while the lower graph uses twereycle logarithmic paper. A. more complete discussion of the presentation of sounding data is given in Sectin tV-D. One potential source of ezror exists in inter preting the sotinding data: lateral variations in resistivity may exist The interpretations as- at the only variations are with depth, the subsurface consists of a sequence of horizontal layers, With increasing electrode separition, however, one or more of the elec trodes may approach or cross a lateral change in resistivily such as a lens of gravel, an area of shallow bedrock or « vertical contact between sail types. (See Section TV-A). The interpreter will tsually be unaware of this situation, so that serious errors may result. ‘Three differant field techniques are available to avoid such errors: (a) Select the location for the sounding along one of the profile lines, at a place where the pro- ling data showed little or no change from sta ion to station, ()) Alter cumpleting the sounding ata Ioca- tion, repeat the readings along a line perpendic ular to the first. Tf the readings are approxim- ately the same at equal electrode separations, it may be asstimed that the layering is easly hori zontal and that no unknowz lateral variation were encountered. If (he readings dilfer sub- stantially at equal elecirode separations, the 9 sounding interpretation should be considered as relatively less reliable. (¢) Use the Lee electwade configuration to de- tect Variations. The Lee electrode configuration is illustrated in Figure 10u. One additional etec- trode, P% is driven into the ground at the center of the spread, and three readings are taken at each electrivte spacing. One reading uses the normal potential clecttades, P, P.. to give the conyentional reading. For the other two, the in- 780 00 250 ‘Apporsot Raslativity. Gherfsat) put to the units is successively from P, Py am PB. Bs If readings overlap each other (F 10b), latesal variations in resistivity are grobabl not serious. If they diverge rom each othe (Figure 10c), lateral variations may be seriows and the sownfing interpretation shuld be eon sidered ag relatively less reliable. ‘The choice of electrode separations at whicl readings should be taken may be guided by th following principles: (See Section T1-C) Electrods Sepetettn, 0 (feet) » 0 9 @ 8 10 200 FIGURE: 9 Illustration of Twe Methods for Graphing the Same Sounding Date 10 FIGURE 10: "Lee" Electrode Configuration (a) The lergest electrode separation should be at least 3 times, and preferably § or LO tires, the maximum depth of interest (b)_ ‘The smallest elzctrade separation should fe less than one-half the minimum depth at which a change in materiel is expected, except that electrode separations less than 2 or 3 feet are wsually not nocded, (c) The readings should he mare clasely spaced at the smaller electrode separations and more widely spaced at the larger electrode separa: tions, A convenient way to zecomplish this is to tike readings at ronghly equal spacings as measured along the logarithmic seale of distance. B. Electrode Arrangements sktmopuction A mmmber of different configurations of cur- rent and potential electrodes exist, In all ar- rangements, the electrodes are laid out along a line with the ctirrent electrodes generally placed on the outside of the potential eleetredes. The opposite layout is theoretically cyyivatent. Tn engineering work, only two clectrode arrange- ments have found wide usage. These are shown in Figure 11. The arraws in Figure 11 represent metal eeetrodes which have been pushed a iew inches into the earth 2, WENWER CONFIGURATION ‘The Wenner arrangement uses four electrodes eiually spaced along a line, Spacing between WENNER ARRANGEMENT BATTERY CURRENT_METER 4 —_( SCHLUMBERGER ARRANGEMENT ee susie. tl FIGURE 11: The two major slactrode configurations, adjacent electrodes is designated “A”. For this configuration, equation 3 of Section IT becomes; op — 2rdiV/T ~ WAR i Most engineering work in North America has been carried out using the Wenner eonfigura- tion, It has the disadvantage that lateral aub_ sutface variations can be misinterpreted as depth, variations, Some protection against this possi bility cat be obtained Ly taking measurements along two perpendicular lines or by using the Lee modification, (See Section IT1-A-2). Ina Wenner Electrode Configuration, the out- er eleetroiles serve as the current clecirodes and the two inner clectrades receiving electrodes, Tn use, 2 theoretical ellip- soid-shaped electric field is induced hetween the current electrodes while bowlshaped equipoten- flal surfaces ave induced around each ctirrent clectrode. (See Fignre 12). al erve as the pote! Measured from the center position, each po- tential electrode (P., P,) is at a distance A/2 and each current electrode (C, € 3A/2 For example, if it is desired to increase the electrode separation, A, by 10 feet [rom one reading to the nest, each potential electrode must be moved § fect and each current electrode must be moved 15 feet is at « distance For rapid reconnais procedure will minis nee, the following special ¢ the number of distances FIGURE 14; Fliipscidal elearic field is shown in solid lines while the equipatential surfaces appect as dash- ced lines. The atrows represent the curront clsdrodes. Notice the increasing depth of penetration as the elec- trode separation increases, Three readings taken us ‘ng 10 foot increments in electrode spocing. which mast be measured. Take the first read- ing ot the largest electrode separations which will be required (call this A,), the next at A,/3, the next at A\/9, etc. It will be found that the focation of the potential eleetrodes for one read- ing becomes the location of the current clec- trodes for the next reading. Usually, fnur or five readings will cover the required range of clee- trade separations, The arrangement is Mlustrat- ed in Figure 13 i‘ This technique permits rapid comparison of the sounding curves from one location with those of another, However, because the points are so widely spaced on the graph, alditionel interme: diate readings may be required to completely de- fine the curve shape 9 SCHLUMBERGER CONFIOURATION The Schlumberger arrangement uses four dectrodes with unequal spacing. as shown in Figure Il, When the electrode spacing changes during ficld measurements, only the twe outer electrodes are moyed; L is changed, hut MN is kept constant. ‘The ratio L/MN is kept within the range 3 to 30. For this configuration, equa- tion 3 hecomes: pox UNI (N14) T= eNO Most European investigators use this arrange- ment 4. COMPARISON OF WEINER AND SCHIMIMRERGER CONFIGURATION. ‘The Schlumbereger arrangement permits ex digerimination hetween lateral and deptt var ations, and is also faster to nse in the field. Tn- terpretation of the readings is more complicated A more sensitive instrument is required for the Schlumberger coniiguration than for the Wen- ner arrangement, The Wenner arrangement is probably more suitable for the non-speeialist and ‘the occasional user of resistivity surveys, 2 FIGURE 12: "Leap-frog” Sequence of Sound Readings, Im both arrangements, the electrodes: she reach moist carth if at all possible, Tn some citmstanens, thig may require insertion to a di of as much a8 two of three [ecl. As an alte tive, water may be poured around the electro C. Electrode Spacing 1, INTRopuctION ‘The choice of electeade spacing deserves « ful attention for several rensons._ Interpretat can be helped or hindered through proper oF ji proper choice of clectrode spacings. Spaci which ix too wide will make it difficult to ob reliable ficld curves. Spacing which is too yi will require unnecessarily long field time tain interpretation methods (Barnes Lay Method, Moore Cumulative Resistivity Metho impose requirements on the choice of electro spacings Standardization of field procedur would contribute to communication ‘persons in resistivity wark. For scientific purgases and for normal resisti ily work, the optimum electrode spacings woul be equally spaced on a logarithmic seale. Thi efiterion arises from the theory of surreal fen in a three-dimensional medium, in which the ¢f fect of shallower material is always weighte more heavily ia the readings than deeper ma terial, Thus smal} intervals should be sed for smaller electrode spacings, aml larger interval for larger soacings Tl is custumary to plot thi sounding data on double lugarithmie paper. 69 that the electrode intervals appear to be equally! spaced, For shatlow engineering problems where the interpreter wishes to nse the Barnes Le Method or the Moors Cumulative Resistiv Method, (See Sections TV-D-4 and 3, equal wrvals on a linear stale are more convenient ind, for the Moore method, essentind) Another criterion to he considered when the Wenner electrode arrangement will be used is the desirability of convenient values for A/2 and 3A/2 Measured from the center of the spreal, these rather than A are the quantities which de- ne the location of the electrodes, Even when ‘A itself is a convenient inieger, A/2 and 3A/2 may be awkward fractions This difficulty dnes not arise in using the Schlumberger electrode arrangement. since 1. half-distance hetween the current electrodes) ix measured direct! 2, RECOMMENDED ELECTRODE SPACINGS sOR Two types of measnrement may he distin guished: one requiring considerable detail in the fesistivity sounding curve, hence, closely spaced readings, and the other requiriag less detail 3, RECOMMENDED ELECTRODE SPACINGS FOR BAFNES LAYER METHOD AND MOORE ‘CUMULATIVE RESISTIVITY. METHOD Hoth the Barnes Layer Method and the Moore Cumulative Resistivity Meshod (See Sections IV-D-4 and 3) use the Wenner configuration Equal increments of clustrode spacing are con venient for the Barnes Layer method and essen- ial for the Moore method. Barnes recommends the use of a 3-foot inter val fur the first few readings and then a 5 or 6 foot interval. Tn order to have convenient aum= hers for A/2 and 3A/2, seme advantage is gained hy using: even rather than odd numbers far A in feet, are ‘The following electrode spacings ‘Phe following A-values (Wenner) or L- Teepnmmcalled Values (Schlumberger) will yield essentially =e % equal spzcings along a logarithmic scale j VSO a Ga ON ase Ga teuy . 7] = * |) @ | wo | @ a | a s [a | o | » wm | a | | om | w | 38 w | a | «@ | x 2 | zm | a | « | w For close spacing, all of the above values would be used out t0 whichever maximum clec- trode spacing is desired. For broader spacing, those values in the parenthesis may be omitted. In the Schlumberger configuration, MN is Axed in position while successive readings are taken for the increasing values of L given above When the limitations on instrument sensitivity prevent further readings, MN is increased to a new fixed position and the sequence of L values is continued, Overlap ot duplication of two or three T-ralues must be provided whenever MN is increased. L must be greater than 2.5 (MN) at all times, It is recominended that the first MNV value be set at either 3 feet or 1 meter, that the next be 10 fect or 3 meters, ete, FIGURE 14, Voluma element extending between the potentiol eecirodes (represented by the inside arrows) ‘with true ity = py and currant density & EEres==a” 13 TV. INTERPRETIVE METHODS ‘A. Qualitative Interpretation of Sounding Data 1. inmmoouctton ‘The primary purpose of this section is to dix cuss the effect of various subsurface acrange- ments on the resistivity readings, The discus sion will he slirected Loward the interpretetion of jounding data as the sounding technique is de- igned to determine subsurface varietions with depth. Howerer, the information can be profit ably applied to profiling interpretation as well The qualitative method rests upox a founda tion of Gvo simple principles, Tisst, the lines of varrent flow will be deflected toward a good con- ductor. ‘The second principle is that the poten tial difference, V. between the potential edlec- trodes is produced by the current flow along the lines joining them: ‘The second principle can be illustrated by Vig- ure 14, The voltage drop, V, will be proportional to the true resistivity and to the current density in the small, nearsurface volume between the potential clectrodes Vox pu where js is the trae resistivity and jis the car Fert densisy, The symbol “2 means “propor- tional to” just as “—" represents “equal to". Current density is defined ax the current passing ehiough a unit cross sectional area, TE the above equation is substituted into equa- tion 4 or 5 of Section TIT-B, the result will be that the apparent res .is proportional to the true resisitivity multiplied by the ratio of the current density to the current, p (Dan © Hecause the current density changes in direct proportion to the changes in ihe ‘oval current (it the total current is doubled, the current density is doubled), the measured apparent resistivity is independent of changes in the total current into the gromd, Equation (6) contains the key to the qualita tive interpretation of resistivity effects. This also be stated in these words: 4 Different subsurface conditions will pro- duce different apparent resistivity readings, Ifa small volume element is imagined as ¢x- lending along the catth surface hetween the two potential electrodes as shown in Pigure 14, then it will have a certain current den- sity, i, and a certain (rue resistivity, p... The meastired apparent resistivity will be direct ly proportional te these two quantities. ‘The resistivity theory was developed in see tion IT by assuming that the subsurface consists) of a very unusual type of material. This ma terial, to any depth necessary, was to have a per- ectly uniiorm resistivity, Nature is not often this considerate. ond the resistivity of true subd suriace materials will deviate from uniformity ‘The qualitative method regards each subsuria condition as a deviation from the perfectly 1 form material. In mest cases, these deviations sill affect Lhe) current density. Por a uniform subsurfate, the current distribution is that shown in Figure ‘4, and the apparent resistivity is equal to the true resistiviy. The actual subsurface conditions will almost always produce some kind of change in the current density distribation, which, in tun affects the current density in the small volume clement between the potential electrodes, Simi- larly, the actual snbsurface conditions may pro duce a change in the trae resistivity between the potential electrodes, though not as often. The qualitative method deserihed here can be very helpful in understanding the relationship) between subsuriace conditions and. resistivity readings, ‘The intricacies of the method most readily succumb to illustrations, so numercts examples will be illustrated later in this section, After the principles of the method have been graxped, the readers should have no difficulty. predicting the general character of resistivity: readings which will be produced by other types af subsurface conditions, Conversely. he showid be alle to deduce possille strata arrangements which might explain particular field readings he has oblained. This, then. is the convenience aul worth of the method, Tt chould be emphasized that this method is not intended to be used for quantitative interpretation, (See Section IV-D). SvalL ELECTRODE SPACING, 4 peat eet ” a HIGH FIGURE 150: Two-layer model with low-resistivity layer over high-resist 2, Two Layer Structures fo. LOWAESISHVITY Lave over HIGH RESISTIVITY LAYER Ax a first example, consider a low-resistivity layer such as soil overlying a thiels, high-resis- tivity layer such as dense rock Using the elec- trical sounding technique, how would the appar~ ent resistivity readings change as the presence of the rock starts to influence the readings ? A completely uniform suhsurla tivity eqnals that of the top (soil) layer would have Tines of eurent flow as shown by the dashed! lines in Figure 15a, As the elecifode sparing increases, the presence of the rock substratum storts lo alter either the current density, j, or the true resistivity, p, measured by the instrument along the surface line between the two potential electrodes. ‘The true resistivity of the surface material is not changed by the presence of the rock, since the rack does not extend to the surface. ‘Thus, pm will Le completely unaffected by the rock substratum and cannot contribute to the change in the apparent resistivity readings. The bed- rock's effect upon the current density at the sur- face will depead upon the electrode spacing, or, more precisely, upon the ratio of the clectrade spacing to the depth of the bedrock. The left side of Figure 15a chows that wheat the electrcute spacing is small compared to the depth, the cur- rent density will be largely unaffected by the rock, The corresponding upparent resistivity LARGE ELECTRO! 6,8 NORMAL LINES OF ACTUAL CURRENT FLOW” CLRRENT FLOW layer. rendling is chown at electrode spacing A’ on the resistivity field curve in Figure 13b. ‘Whe right side of Higure 1Sa shows the re- distribution of current density for larger elec- trode spacings as the current starts to eater rock, ‘The current is defected away from the high- resistivity rock substratum as the current seeks ia follow a path of lower resistance. The cur- sent density in the soil layer is increased every- where, ond, in particular, the current density i between the current electrodes is increased. Since, as was shown in the introduction to Sec tion IV-A the apparent 1 rectly pro- portional to i, the apparent resistivity will also de inereased ‘The corresponding reading om the resistivily field curve is shown at electrode spacr ing A” in Figure 150. Two conclusions should be apparent, Hirst, the current density distribution will change grad- Ge ee S $i FIGURE 15b. Corresponding reeietivity field curve. wb SMALL ELECTRODE ‘SPACING, FIGURE 160: Twe-layer model with high-resislivity layer over low-resist ually as the electrode spacing is increased (and the effect of the ing, high-esistivity Strarum increases) the apparent resis tivity curve will rise smoothly to gradnally ap- proach the true resistivity of the bedrock layer as the electrode spacing becomes very large rela- tive to the depth of the rock, If sharp changes ima resistivity curve are observed, they can tsu- ally he accounted for only as lateral changes in the subsurface conditions, never by horizontal layering, Sccond, the true resistivity in the near-surface soil layer can he easily determined, It is simply the leit-hand limit of the sounding curve. I the sounding curve is extrapolated back to (he limit of zero electrode separation, this appareat © tivity will he equal to the trac resistivity of the surface layer. This may he seen in Figure 15 and also in Figure 161 to he discussed below, b. Hlow-Resisriviy LAYER OVER LOW-RESISTIVITY LAYER The effect on resistivigy readings of a this, horizontal deposit near the surface is much gteater than its physical volume suggests jt should he, Often euch discontinuities are inter preted as heing more massive deposits Iyinge at gruater depths or ay vertical changes. If sndden changes ocenr in the readings, near-snrfaee hori= zoiltal discositinuitics or vertical changes should be suspected, Only rarely will material lying at depth produce sndden variations in electrical readings made on the surface. 16 LARGE ELECTRODE SPACING, A layer. Tn this case, the higher-vesistivity layer such gravel overlies the lower-resistivity layer such clay. ‘The analysis proceeds exactly av befor except that now the lines of current Row are d flected downward toward the low-resistivity sul stratum, ‘hig results in reduced current densit i, along the surface between the potential ele trodes. Ience, the apparent resistivity readin; are reduced, The pattern is shown in Figure 1 and the expected resistivity fleld curve in Pi ture 16h, In Figures 17 to 23, curves similar to thos in Figures 15h and ib ase shown. All of thes curves are numerically accurate, and may be us ed for quantitative interpretation as described ix Section TV-D-5. Notice the asymptotic behavior for large and small electrode separations, Te make the curves universal, ratios of resistivity Ss ' 4 FIGURE: 16b: Corresponding resistivity field curv 7 SHAUN YAVTOML ZALVINASRATY ‘ZL JUNI Ww WoL SNOT x BL Nouvavass soou.oa “IAUSIS94 ABAYHSOW.ANS sisi aye ui: z 4] le aw gO JdKL ATHISSOd XIS SHL 40 OME 1 oe ee et [et Fi Pa te =H SSH “ynouvevass coun | 18 19 “S3AUND YIAVTSHUHL 4O S3AAL TaISSOd XIS BHA 40. OML “1 BUND | suiAussg4 eaav HOYOS saiqucieas unsivady a “MOTH NY AAO RY TVINSLYW TYDUUNAGI HLIMA ‘SSaNDIDIML ONIANVA JO 3NOT ALIAUISISZE-HOIH V 40 103443 11 2aN! ac o z c Ss anyIDvies Te ‘ALALLSISSY ONIAMWA NV SS3N AHL INVISNOD 40 3NOZ AUALSISANHOIH ¥ 40 Lozda *7e TUNDIL oe Bo weal oe es ee cl eee icone eee wou: Te 1) 23 "SHId3q SNOIIVA Ly 'SS3NADIHL INYISNOD 4O 3NOZ ALIAUSISHUHSIH ¥ 20. SBAUND ONIONNOS ALIALISISA NO 193144 ‘ez 2NOH ese = 20 SS5NA9IHL fh et wou ” and of length have been graphed, These curves are based on tubles published by Roman (1960) As an illustration of the application of these curves to a particular problem, suppose that a prediction of the measured value of apparent re~ sistivity for various electrode separations is ée- sired. Given an area where the surface resisti ity pr = 200 ohm-feet, the resistivity in the deep Tayer py — 2000 ohm-feet, and the depth to the top of the deep layer D, = 10 feet, the appropri ate curve in Figure 17 must be the one labeled pe: = Wp.. The readings on the vertical axis must be multiplied by 200 ohm-feet and the read- ings on the horizontal axis must be multiplied hy 10 feet. Sample readings should he, therefore ‘apparent Resta 218 cheefost 16 4 : | 3. ‘Three-Layer Structure ‘A three layer structure consists of a surface layer, an intermediate layer, and an anderlying ‘material of considerable thickness. Six combin- ations of resistivity are possible Bron of Helos | tnermalate layer Tore Coron Shown Aassiny | Renihviy in Four edo 206) Wich 180 High 1 ew. 10 deciom 20h ‘All of these curves ware computed for the same depth ratios, as shown on the figures As with the two layer cases, the carrent den- sity will be affceted hy the presence of Uie miul- le layers, Notice that the influence of the deeper layers enters gradually, as the electrode separation is increased, Consider Figure 19, For small electravle separations, the readings ap- proach the true resistivity of the surface layer, pu As the electrode separation increases, the readings decrease in response to the influence of the low-resistivity second layer. At still larger electrode separations, the readings increase in response to the influence of the low-resistivily second layer. At still larger electrode separa- 24 tions, the readings increase in response to the in- fluence of the high-resistivity third layer, Many curves of this sort are available in publications by Mooney and Wetzel (1955). ‘The curves may illustrate the effects produced by chinges in the subsurface conditions, As a first example, Figure 21 shows how the readings would be changed asa very thick high-resistivity intermediate layer becomes successively thinner. Notice how the maximum reading decreases, and how the width of the peck decreises, “This illus trates the principle stated in part $ of Section qt Ac another example, Tigure 22 shows how the readings would be changed as the resistivity of an intermediate layer becomes successively smaller. It is interesting to observe that the ef- fect is very similar to that in the preceding ex- ample, Note that the position of the peal: on the apparent resistivity eure cannot be used to uniquely determine depth, as has sometimes been suggested Asa final example, Figure 23 shows how the readings would be changed ap depth of burial is increased, for a high-resistivity layer of constant thickness. Notice how the magnitude of the peak decreases, and how it occurs at longer and larger clectrode separations. 4. EFFECT oF CUFF OF ROAD CUT ‘A frequent problem in resistivity surveys is to take account of topographic features such as hills, gullies, ete. ‘The operator muy be unable lo estimate how much of his observed variation is due to these visible fearures and how much £0 subsurface variations As an example, note how the resistivity read- ings are affected asa sharp cliff or a road cut is approached [rom the top side, Clearly, po will le unaffccted, hence it will not change the appar- ent fesistivily reading, On the other hand, the lines of current [low will be deflected away from the iff (which may be regarded as having in finite resistivity) as is shown in igure 24a, Ln particular, che current density twill be inereased, hence, the apparent resistivity will alse be ine creased, ‘The effect will be gradual as the cliff edge is approached, As the electrode spread gets very, close to the clit! edge, the effect on the apparent FIGURE 24a: Cross-sectional view of the effect of a cliff or read cut on electric Feld lines (paths of current flow). resistivity will become quite large, Theretore, resistivity surveys should aroid getting closer than one or two electrade spacings to sharp top- ographical changes smch as a cliff or road eut, The clilf example emphasizes that current flow in (he earth is a three-dimensional phenom- enon. Figure 24) shows a line of resistivity electrodes laid out parallel to the edge of the cliff, which appears as the solid line in the upper portion of the figure. ‘The sketeh represems a ton or plan view father than a cross section view. Ayain, the fines of current flow are deflected away from the cliff, 5. FECT CF A GRAVEL DEFOsTT Figure 25 shows the effect on the lines of cur- rent flow produced hy a highresistivily gravel deposit. There will be relatively little effect for small electrade spacings (compared to depth to the top of the gravel). At larger electrode spac- ings, the lines of current flow will be deflected this will increase i and will, therefore, the measured apparent resistivity Qualilative methods do not answer the yues tiun: How large an electrode spacing must be used ft order {o detect the gravel deposit? This requires a quantitative approach to the problem (See Section IV-D), FIGURE 24b: Plan view of the effect of a diff or road cut on tha electric field linet of a station laid out parallel to the drop off. From Figure 25, il may be suruaised that too large an electrode spacing will reduce the prob- abilities of detection of a thin deposit. For a large electrode spacing, the redistribution of the lines of current flow will be relatively slight, be- cause the nonuniformity represented by the gravel deposit occupies only a relatively small fraclion of the (otal volume of current flow. 6 PROFLING ACROSS A. VERTICAL CONTACT All of the preceding examples have illustrated ouly the effect of current density redistribution on apparent resistivity readings, Suppose that a profiling survey is conducted over a subsariace consisting of two uniform me- dia separated by a near-vertical contact plane, as shown in Figure 26a. This might represent a fault contact between an igneous and a sedimen- tary formation, for example, or the steep side of a buried stream channel with soil on one side and rock on the other FIGURE 25, Effect of a Gravel Dopesit on the Rastetivity Rozul 25 FIGURE 260: Profiling survey crossing vertical con- tact beeen High and Low Resistivity materials, ‘At Tocations far from the separation plate, the apparent resistivity will equal the true resisli ity, The situation is illustrated at Incaton B’, where it can be seen that neither i nor py will be affected by the sresence of the contact. Point B is. also shown on the ecvresponiling field curve in Figure 26h, Paint BY shows the effect when the leading dlectrode has almost bist not quite reached the contact, “The situation is very similar lo the ex- ample in Section IV-A~4; the eifect will not be so severe, howevel, because the resistivity be- yond the contact is not intinite as it was heyend the ulge of the cliff. ‘The field curve in Vigure {26h will show a gradual increase in the resistivity readings, Alter the first electrade has crossed the con- fact, the fiel curve will decrease slightly due to reilisteabticn of the lines of current flow. Point DM represents the sitnation aller she frst two electrodes have crossed the contact A new phenomenon has now entered, xawely a change in the clfective resistivity, p between the two) potential clectrodes. p, will he weighted average (actually, a series combination) of the 26 pt 1 ; : mt grat ge BY cchven or sence LocaT on oF towracr FIGURE 26b: Corresponding fiald resistivity curve. two resistivities, The influeiice of pe, on the ap- parent resistivity will be very much greater than the siuall variations in i, and the fatter may be ignored for the moment. With two and only twa elecirodus acrdng the contact, two conclusions should be obpiuns. First, pu aad thereiore the apparent resistivity, will increase continnansly as the epruail crosses the contact. Second, the apparent resistivity will in- crease very rapidly. Te illustrate the second conchision, assume that py — 10 obm-feet and pv — 1000 nhm-feet, When (le spread is exactly centers over the contact, pe will he made up of 50% cf pa” ma- terial, hence on — 1/2(100) + 1211000) = 550 oh-feet. ‘Thus the apparent resistivity will haye inereas- cal to more than five times its normal value far to the leit of the contact ‘The remainder vi the predicted profiling euree in Figure 26) has been skerched, Sharp breaks should be oliserved whenever one of the elec- trodes crosses the contact, In practice, Ihe curve will be much smoather becuse readings will be taken only at discrete points rather than continu- ously. Also, sharp contacts such as was assumed above may not correspond ty the actual subsur- face conditions. 7. RESISTIVITY Backups In keeping with the theory of indeed soten- Wal. there exists a lendency for the R ur 2nR FIGURE 5: Equipment For Send end Gravel Prospecting values to decrease (and LR values to increase) us electrole spacing (and depth of investigation) is iuereaseil, “This can be expected under all “normal” subsuriace and surface conditions gardless of the resistivities of the materials in volved However, the valtes for R, 2a R and 1/R will tevasionally "backup," ‘That is, the R and 2a R valnes will incvease ond the 1/R values will de- crease as the electrode spacing is increased. If this happens, the user should be very careful in interpreting his results, Backups normally orenr when the resistiviyy sounding is performed in such away thal the equipatentia! surface induced arimnd one current electrode encompasses a ma terial of mych higher resistivity. than che ma- terlal around the other current electrade. Some suriace and substttface conditions which past experience has indicated can produce resi tivity “back-ups” when the Wenner Electrode Configuration is used, are illustrated in Figures 27, 28, 29 and ¥) Figure 27 shows the effect on electric eld Hines (paths of current flow due to differing amounts of material aronnd the current elec trodes), Ifa resistivity conrse muist approach a drop-off of sharp rise in ground on the course should be parallel to these surface few tures so that che effect will be the same for boLh bowls of potential difference The topagraphical feature will still have an effect on the readings (See Section IV-A-4) The uext Higure show's how the current low Hines can be distorted if the sounding is lait out 27 ROE OFF FIGURE 27: Warping of electric field lines due to surface features, at an angle to the contour of a hil) underlain by. high resistivity materials such as bedrock, To avoid this situation, position cesistivity. sound ings parallel to the contours of hills. Always at- tempt to encompass similar surface and subsitr- face conilitions in cach bowlshaped equipoten- tial surface. Figure 29 shows how localized sub- sutiace conditions can cause resistivity back-ups as the high resistivity material under one cur rent clecirode warps the current paths, For tackups stich as this, it is best to wse a mew lay out at right angies to the present one. ‘The importance of “seating” the current elec- trodes im firm contact with the soil is illustrated in Figure 30, A rule to remember is to always leave some “push” in the ¢lecirodes—never seat” an electrode on azgregare or ona boulder. pocket of aggregate ar a boulder is eacoun- tered along the resistivity layout, move the elec trode out of line along a direction at right angles, to the layout B. Correlation of Resistivity Data to Materials It should be emphasized again thal a resistiv- ity unit docs not measure the true resistivity of any particular volume of earth unless the ma- tefial is homogencous. It measures instead a weighted average of all of the different resistivi- fica present in the volume, (The resistivity of the stirface material has greater influence on the CS oo Teer oF Hoot ReSsTIVITY aTeRAL FIGURE 29: Effea of near-surface layer on electric Feld lines when the depotit ix in the neighborhood of ‘only ane current electrode. 28 vccur if the station is positioned down the side of the hill. readings than do deeper lying materials). Newer theless, the operator should have some under- standing of typical resistivity values for varicus earth materials For nearly all earth materials, an essential the~ oretieal fact to keep in mind is that resistivity de- creases with increasing water content and with increasing water salinity This principle leads to the conclusion that non-porous materials will exhibit relatively high resistivity yalues since the water content ily be small, ‘This category includes all of the ignitious and metamorphic rocks such as granite and basalt, plus many sedi- ientary reeks such as dense limestone or sand- stone. Expected resistivity values may range from a few thousand ohm-feet ap to several tens of thousands Other high resistivity materials will include those which are porous but contain little or no water, such as dey sand, or those which are both porons and water saturated but containing very little salt. Clean gravels and sand fall in the fat ter category. Lt is this characteristic which makes resistivity a successful prospecting tool for gravel deposils. A dirty gravel will show lower resistivity due to the higher salinity (lee AGGREGATE FIGURE 30: Effect of “seating” ¢ current electrode in @ pocket of high-resistivity material. ibm content) cattsed by the intermixed clays, hence it may sometimes be possible to estimate the quality of 2 gravel depasit from resistivity meastirements, Expected resistivity values for cleat gravels range [rom several hundred up to several (housand ohm-ieet. Most soils fall at the low end of the resistivity, scale, since they are normally moist and contain a eee eee ne a damp region will show resistivities in the i higher valuex will be encountered. idence of the support for the theoretical statement above, resistivity studies conducted to date above the ground water table indicate that materials which can ubsord or “hold!” moisture are lower in resistivity than those materials which cannot, Thes, clays and silt are lower in yosislivity than sands and gravels. Resivtivity studies conducted ty date below the ground water table indicate that, materials which can hold freeions and electrolytes m sas- pension will have lower resistivity Lian those materials which cannot, Thus, clays and silts, which cin absurh and hold water above the ground water table, eaw also hold more free-ions and electrolytes beluw the ground water table than sand and gravel. Hence, clays and silts, tested ahove or helow the level of the ground wa- ier table, will be lower in resistivity than sands and gravel tested under similar conditions Present resistivity data indicates that svils, d water aud bedrock deposits in the glaci- ated and nom-glaeiated areas of the world pos- sess characteristic resistivities. ‘This is especially true af soils and ground water in the noglaci- ated areas which, evidence indicates, possess considerably lower tesistivily values than similar inthe glaciated areas. This condition to the gradual decomposition of the more resistant day minerals in the nor-glaciated ateas into the lower resistant species of clay sninerals, ‘Also affecting the resistivity of materials lying above the ground water table is the surface topo- ils lying tencath valleys or other areas in which moistire can accumulate will have lower resistivities than similar soils beneath hills or other well drained areas, For this rea~ son, it can be misleading to contour similar re- sistivity readings as indicating similar materials if the profilng surveys are performed over hills and valleys. (A period of extended rainfall can ako cause problems.) While surface topography can complicate the job of interpreting subterrain conditions, it re- mains (rue that the resistivity of materials tend to keep their same ranking, moist or dey. Thu asa mule of thumb, clay will be lower in re ity than silt, silt lower than sand, and sand lower than sand and gravel, for a given topography The resistivity of hedrock can vary consider ably depending upon the type of bedrock and the extent of weathering and fracturing. Massive- bedded limestone, sandstone and igneous bed- rock will have higher resistivities than thinly hedded formations which can contain low res ivity moisture and soil deposits. Shale layers in sedimentary bedrock will also decrease the re- sistivity of the rock. A shale bedrock formation will generally have lower resistivity values than any other sedimentary bedrock. Bedrock, as it agen, has a tendeney for ils surface to erack and break up. ‘These voids become filled with lower resistivity materials, and trap the water which cannot seep into the lower, solid portion of the rock. Thus, the weathered top of the bedrock layer may have resistivity values lower than those for the solid rock Tn general, the res tivity of bedrock ean be considered as high (com> parable to sand and gravel), except for some shales and weathered basaltic rock formations which may produce lower resistivity readings. In general, the resistivity values can be cor- related to material types as shown in the fellow- ing resistivity table: Table 4 RESISTIVITY. CORRELATION ‘ob Typer of Morera, Sy 10 Wei to moist dayey soi 10 te 98 3400 15,000 Wat a male lly day end sone ety sale 50 te m0 15400 te 75900. -Mob to dry tty fone aoady ol 20 40 1,000 26,000 ¥4 100,000 Wellfratred 16 Fradured bedrock ‘Asi sol filed cocks p00 100,000 Sed nd grovel With el fread bedrock ih dey sel ied roe Sane ‘ene grovel west layers of a ‘cssbia bedded ond bord bedrock, Coane dry sand fone grovel dopants 11900 te 8,009 100,000 te 300,00, £5000 (glee) 300,000 ples) 29 There

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