CHAPTER 6

ONE-QUADRANT CHOPPER OR
DC-TO-DC CONVERTER
6.1 INTRODUCTION

In many applications, a dc source is available and the average value of a direct voltage applied to
the load has to be varied.
A dc-to-dc converter or dc chopper achieves this function with high efficiency.
Converters of this type are used as

(1) variable dc drives in electric cars and subway trains,

(2) sometimes as intermediate stages of complex power conditioning systems.

The method of controlling the average load voltage using a dc chopper is shown in Fig. 6.1.
During a time interval tON, dc source is supplied to the load circuit and during toff, the source is cut
off from the load.

L R
is io
S + + v L - + vR -
V D1
vo Vc
iD
-
DC CHOPPER
(a)

(c) Realization using a bipolar junction transistor (BJT).

Fig. 6.1 Method of controlling average load voltage using a DC chopper.

The average load voltage, Vo [= (tON/T)V] can be varied using one of the three methods:
(i) Pulse width modulation - vary tON holding T constant.

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-1

 (ii) Frequency modulation - tON constant, vary T.
(iii) Combination of pulse-width and frequency modulation.

NOTE: T = switching period = 1/fs fs = switching frequency.

6.2 TYPES OF CHOPPER CIRCUITS

TYPE-A CHOPPER:

If the output voltage (Vo) and load current (Io) can only be positive, then the chopper
circuit is called as Type A (One-Quadrant) chopper.

Fig. 6.2(a) shows the circuit diagram of Type A chopper.

S1 is a power semiconductor switch, which may be a

 power transistor (BJT, MOSFET, IGBT)
 a gate turn-off switch (GTO) or
 a force commutated thyristor.

In Fig. 6.2(a), a bipolar junction power transistor is shown for illustration. D1 is a

freewheeling diode.
Figs. 6.2(b) and 6.2(c) illustrate the principle of operation of Type-A chopper
assuming control by means of frequency modulation. Type A chopper works only in
first quadrant (Fig. 6.2(d)).

The load current is discontinuous in Fig. 6.2(b) and during the interval io = 0, vo =
Vc.
If the period T is reduced to such an extent that S is closed before current io reaches
zero (as shown in Fig. 6.2(c)) then the circuit works in continuous current mode.
The mode of operation also depends on the values of inductance L and Vc.

vo

0
io
(a) (d)

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-2

Fig. 6.2 Basic principle of Type-A chopper: (a) Circuit diagram using a bipolar junction transistor
(BJT). (b) Discontinuous current mode of operation. (c) Continuous current mode of operation.
(d) First quadrant.

A. CONTINUOUS CURRENT MODE (CCM) OF OPERATION

Current is continuous in Fig. 6.2(c) and operation in this mode is illustrated in Fig. 6.3 together
with equivalent circuits during the two intervals of operation.

Fig. 6.3 (a) Circuit diagram for one quadrant chopper. (b) Operation waveforms for continuous current
mode (CCM). (c) Equivalent circuits for operation in CCM.

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-3

B. DISCONTINUOUS CURRENT MODE (DCM) OF OPERATION
The load current is discontinuous in Fig. 6.2(b) and during the interval io = 0, vo =
Vc. Operation in this mode is illustrated in Fig. 6.4 together with equivalent circuits
during the three intervals of operation.

Fig. 6.4 (a) Circuit diagram for one quadrant chopper. (b) Operation waveforms for discontinuous
current mode (DCM). (c) Equivalent circuits for operation in DCM.

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-4

TYPE-B CHOPPER:
If the output voltage Vo can only be positive whereas the current Io can be either positive or
negative, then the dc chopper is called as Type B chopper.
Type B chopper can be used with a load circuit that is capable of regenerating and returning
energy to source V.
As shown in Fig. 6.5, there are two switches S1 and S2, and two diodes D1 and D2.
To obtain positive output current (first quadrant), S1 and D1 are operative, and they operate similar
to Type A chopper.
For operation with negative output current (second quadrant) switch S2 and diode D2 are
employed, while S1 is turned off.
If Vc > 0, and S2 switched on, then a negative current io will flow and energy from source Vc will
be stored in the inductance L.
If S2 is then switched off, a positive value of vL will result and, in conjunction with source voltage
Vc, will force current io through diode D2 and the source V, thus supplying the energy stored in
inductance L to source V.

Fig. 6.5 Two quadrant converter capable of regeneration, MOSFETs are shown as switches.

Fig. 6.5 Two quadrant converter capable of regeneration, BJTs are shown as switches.

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-5

 Fig. 6.6 Four quadrant converter capable of reversal and regeneration.

When it is necessary to provide both regeneration and reversal of the supply to the
load circuit, then the chopper circuit shown in Fig. 6.6 has to be used.

In this circuit both vo and io may be made positive or negative, separately or

simultaneously.
This converter can be operated as a single phase bridge inverter by appropriate
control signals such that vo and io are reversed cyclically.
In this chapter only the type-A chopper is explained in detail.

6.3 ANALYSIS OF THE TYPE-A CHOPPER CIRCUIT

The Type A chopper circuit is analyzed using the differential equation approach in
section 6.3.1 and using Fourier Series approach in section 6.3.2.

6.3.1 Differential Equation Approach

Initially the analysis of the Type A chopper circuit in continuous current mode of
operation (Fig. 6.3(b)) is presented.
Then the discontinuous current mode is considered.

For the circuit of Fig. 6.3(a),

dio R ( vo  Vc )
+ io = A/s (1)
dt L L

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-6

When switch S is turned on at t = 0 , then at t = 0+, vo = V, and io = Imin. Using
these initial conditions, solution of (1) is given by

(V  Vc ) t / 
io = (1  e  t / ) + I
min e A : 0  t  tON s (2)
R

where
= L
s (3)
R

If S1 is switched off at t = tON, io reaches Imax given by

io = Imax = (V  Vc )
(1  e  tON / ) + I t / A (4)
min e ON
R

Fig. 6.3 (a) Circuit diagram for one quadrant chopper. (b) Operation waveforms for continuous
current mode (CCM). (c) Equivalent circuits for operation in CCM.

At the end of tON, free-wheeling diode D1 starts conducting and vo becomes zero.

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-7

From Eqn. (1),

dio R (Vc )
+ io = A/s (5)
dt ' L L

where
t' = t – tON sec (6)

At t' = 0+, io = Imax, & solution of Eqn. (5) is

io = - Vc (1  e t ' /  ) + Imax e t ' /  A : tON  t  T s (7)

R

At t' = T - tON or t = T, io = Imin, and from Eqn. (7),

io = Imin
=  Vc (1  e (T  tON ) /  ) + Imax e (T  tON ) /  A (8)
R

Solving (4) and (8) for Imax and Imin gives

V (1  e  tON /  ) V
Imax =  c A (9)
R (1  e  T /  ) R

V ( etON /   1) V
Imin =  c A (10)
R ( eT /   1) R

If S1 is continuously turned on, tON = T and then from (9) and (10),
(V  Vc )
Imax = Imin = A (11)
R

The converter changes from continuous-current operation to discontinuous-current

operation as tON is decreased to the value tON(x) at which Imin = 0.
Fig. 6.4(b) shows the discontinuous current mode of operation. For the boundary
condition of tON(x), equation (10) gives
t / T )(T /  )
Vc ( e ON ( x )  1)
= A (12)
V ( e T /   1)

or

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-8

 e  1
m= (13)
e  1

where
m = Vc (14)
V

tON ( x )
= (15)
T

= T
(16)


Fig. 6.7 Boundary between discontinuous and continuous current modes of operation.

Using Eqn. (13), a family of curves of m versus  can be plotted with  as a

parameter, and these are shown in Fig. 6.7.
For given value of  (i.e., T/), a point [, m] lying below the curve for that 
signifies continuous-current operation and a point above the curve indicates
discontinuous-current operation.
The line marked  = 0 indicates a purely inductive load and operation above this
line is impossible.

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-9

For discontinuous-current operation,
Imin = 0 (17)

and Eqn. (4) gives

(1  e  tON / )
(V  Vc )
Imax = A : 0 < tON < tON(x) s (18)
R

Also from Eqns. (7) and (18),

io =  c (1  e t ' /  ) + (1  e  tON /  )e  t ' / 

V (V  Vc )
A : 0 < tON < tON(x) s (19)
R R

At t = tx, or t' = tx - tON, io = 0, and equation (19) gives

  (V  Vc )
t x   ln etON /  1 


1  e  tON /   s (20)
 Vc 

io = Imax = (V  Vc )
(1  e  tON / ) + I t / A (4)
min e ON
R

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-10

Fig. 6.4 (a) Circuit diagram for one quadrant chopper. (b) Operation waveforms for discontinuous
current mode (DCM). (c) Equivalent circuits for operation in DCM.

6.3.2 Fourier Series Approach

Fourier Series Analysis can be applied to find io when the load voltage vo very
closely approximates the ideal waveforms shown in Fig. 6.3(b) and 6.4(b).
The Fourier Series expansion of vo is

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-11

 
vo = Vo +  (an cos nt + bn sin nt) V
n 1

= Vo +  (cn sin(nt + n) V (21)
n 1

where  is the angular chopping frequency expressed as

2
= rad/s (22)
T

T = 1/fs

Initially the values of Vo, an and bn are obtained for the discontinuous-current case.
Then they can be easily evaluated for the continuous-current case using tx = T.
Thus

t T 
1  ON 
Vo = T 
 Vdt   c 
V dt
 0 tx 
 

tON (T  t x )
= T
V 
T
Vc V (23)

2
T
an = T
 vo cos nt dt
0

t T 
2  ON 2nt 2nt 
=
T 
 V cos T dt   Vc cos T dt 
 0 tx 
 

V V
= sin ntON  c sin nt x V (24)
n n

Similarly,

2
T
bn = T
 vo sin nt dt
0
V V
= [1  cos ntON ]  c [1  cos nt x ] V (25)
n n

Also

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-12

 cn = [an2 + bn2]1/2 (26)
and

n = tan-1( an ) rad (27)

bn

For the continuous-current mode of operation, the above equations give

V
an = sin ntON V (28)
n

V
bn = [1 – cos ntON] V (29)
n

2V
cn = [1  cos(ntON )]1 / 2 V (30)
n

sin(ntON )
n = tan-1[ ] rad (31)
[1  cos(ntON )

RMS value of the nth harmonic voltage is

1 2  b2 ]1 / 2
VnR = [an n V (32)
2

The rms value of the output voltage is

1/ 2
  
VR = Vo2  2
 VnR  V (33)
 
 n 1... 

The rms value of the “ripple voltage” is

  2 2
1/ 2
V2
1/2
VRI = [  nR ] = VR  Vo  V (34)
n 1...

The voltage ripple factor is

Kv = VRI (35)
Vo

Fourier series describing the load current is


io = Io +  (An cos(nt – n) + Bn sin(nt - n) A (36)
n 1

Powerectronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-13

where
an
An = A: (36a)
R 2  ( nL) 2

bn
Bn = A: (36b)
R 2  ( nL) 2

n = tan-1( nL ) rad: (36c)
R

and
(Vo  Vc )
Io = A (37)
R

The rms value of nth harmonic current is

InR = 1
2
A 2
n  Bn2 
1/ 2
A (38)

The rms value of the harmonic components of current is

  2 2
1/ 2
I2
1/2
IRI = [  nR ] =  I R  I o  A (39)
n 1...

where IR is rms value of the output current. The current ripple factor is defined as

Ki = I RI (40)
Io

 Power transistors and GTOs are becoming popular power semiconductor

switches in small to medium power applications, thyristors are used only at very
high power levels.
 In dc chopper circuits, if thyristors are used as the switching elements, then
some type of commutation circuit has to be added in the circuit for turning off
the thyristors.
 There are two possible schemes, viz:

(a) load commutation and (b) forced commutation.

Forced commutation is more popular in dc chopper circuits when SCRs are used.
Further, forced commutation can be subdivided into

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-14

 (a) voltage commutation and (b) current commutation.
Today current commutation is more popular compared to voltage commutation.
A number of circuits are available to achieve voltage or current commutations. But
with the development of high power MOSFETs and IGBTs, use of SCRs using
forced commutation approach is vanishing.

TYPE-B Chopper (Two Quadrant Chopper)

If the output voltage Vo can only be positive whereas the current Io can be either positive or
negative, then the dc chopper is called as Type B chopper.
Type B chopper can be used with a load circuit that is capable of regenerating and returning
energy to source V.
As shown in Fig. 4.3, there are two switches S1 and S2, and two diodes D1 and D2.
Operation:

To obtain positive output current (first quadrant), S1 and D1 are operative, and they operate similar
to Type A chopper.

For operation with negative output current (second quadrant) switch S2 and diode D2
are employed, while S1 is turned off.
If Vc > 0, and S2 switched on, then a negative current io will flow and energy from
source Vc will be stored in the inductance L.
If S2 is then switched off, a positive value of vL will result and, in conjunction with
source voltage Vc, will force current io through diode D2 and the source V, thus
supplying the energy stored in inductance L to source V.

Fig. 6.5 Two quadrant converter capable of regeneration, BJTs are shown as switches.

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-15

(a) (i) Although instantaneous current io can be < 0, average current Io > 0. Therefore is

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-16

 operating in I-quadrant.
(ii) If Imax > 0, Imin < 0, but Io > 0, then operation in I-quadrant.
(iii) Even if Imax small positive value and Io < 0, then operation in II-quadrant.
(b) If Imax < 0, Io < 0, II-quadrant operation.

Note: io can be negative due to the presence of Q2 and D2. Therefore, always operates in
continues current mode.
If Vo > VC, then I-quadrant operation (power supplied to load).
If Vo < VC, then II-quadrant operation (power supplied to input source).

ANALYSIS:
Similar to Type-A chopper.
If Q1 is continuously turned on, tON = T and then
(V  Vc )
Imax = Imin = A (11)
R

When Q2 is continuously turned on, so that tON = 0,

(Vc )
Imax = Imin = A
R

Since we assume ideal devices,

Pin = Pout, VIs = VoIo
The results of the Fourier series analysis of the Type A chopper operating in CCM conditions can
be applied directly to the Type B chopper (equations repeated below):


vo = Vo +  (an cos nt + bn sin nt) V
n 1

= Vo +  (cn sin(nt + n) V (21)
n 1

V
an = sin ntON V (28)
n

V
bn = [1 – cos ntON] V (29)
n

2V
cn = [1  cos(ntON )]1 / 2 V (30)
n

sin(ntON )
n = tan-1[ ] rad (31)
[1  cos(ntON )

Power Electronics Chapter-6 Page # 6-17