URBAN AERODYNAMICS CFD

SIMULATIONS: MODELLING AND

MEASUREMENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
Wind engineering has gain importance in research and practical applications. Through the consulted
literature it can be seen that CFD simulations are one the most used tools for the research of the wind loads
on building, occupants’ comfort, particle dispersion such as pollutants, etc. Nevertheless, most of the studies
have been focused on isolated buildings in the urban core, being this the case where more data is found.

2. CASE STUDY DEFINITION

The Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) is a reference in the field, they summarized the important points to
be considered and clarified the operational range when using CFD for predicting wind environments. These
guidelines were developed based on benchmark tests of various building geometries. In [1] the benchmarks’
table shows individual data set files of Excel and CAD of each case (listed from A to M), describing:

- The geometry.
- The inflow boundary conditions.
- The measuring points for the experiment.

Additionally, in [2] the authors introduced a novel computational methodology to evaluate building
performance at a city scale. The case study was the core part of the CBD in San Francisco, where the high-rise
buildings are located. It studied not only how the tallest building in the area was affected by the wind, but
also the smaller ones.

3. COMPUTATIONAL SETTINGS
How the simulations are performed varies depending on the set-up and the objective of the simulation. The
steps to be followed are:

I. Geometry
In order to compute the vibrations induced by the wind, the MDOF (multiple degrees of freedom) models
were chosen. The MDOF shear model for the multi-story frame structure and the flexural-shear model for
the buildings with large height-to-width ratio. The dynamic wind loads are directly applied to the mass points
of the MDOF models and are also considered because they work well even when the structure goes into the
inelastic state under some super strong wind events.

II. Computational Domain

In the case of [2] a domain was established dependent on the tallest building height, this way the domain
had an upstream length of 4.5Hmax, downstream 13Hmax, height of 6.5Hmax and 8Hmax to the lateral
boundaries.

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 Figure 1. Computational domain of the study area.

In this study, the flow direction was the main direction according to meteorological historical data. Moreover,
focusing only on the one building simulation [3], the domain can be established to be an upstream length of
2H, downstream 10H, height of 6H and 3.5H to the lateral boundaries.

Figure 2. Computational domain isolated building.

III. Mesh
As seen in Figure 2 the mesh for the isolated building, is refined in 1H of the total height, and in all the
directions of the 0.5H, nevertheless, no more information about the mesh was clarified in the paper. In [2], a
grid sensitivity analysis was done, comparing between fine, coarse, and basic mesh.

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 Figure 3. Grid with different resolutions.

Comparing the results with the normalized top-story peak acceleration, it can be seen that a good trade-off
between computation cost and accuracy is found with the basic grid.

Figure 4. Grid sensitivity analysis result.

Moreover, the mesh cell type varies between hexahedron and tetrahedron, the last of these is used in the
zones near to the building so as to obtain a more accurate result.

IV. Turbulence Model

The most common approach for the simulation is either LES (large eddy simulations) or two-equation
turbulence models of the k-ε family. Both of these models are generally accepted, the implementation of one
of these rather than the other is a trade-off. LES computational cost is generally one order of magnitude
greater than the steady RANS simulations, but to achieve a more comprehensive assessment of the wind
environment, these are preferred. This is due to one of the drawbacks of RANS models being the low

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accuracy of two-equation turbulence models in the prediction of mean-flow quantities in weak wind regions
and behind building. Despite this, as seen in [3] a calibration of the standard k-ε closure coefficients can help
obtaining more accurate results, as well as the LK modification in which the magnitude of the vorticity rate is
used in the definition of the production of turbulence due to shear. In the following table, the default and
calibrated values of the closure coefficients are compared, also showing the change in the results of the TKE
around the high-rise building of 3.

Cε1 Cε2 Cµ Ơε Ơk2

Default 1.44 1.92 0.09 1.3 1
ABL Flat Terrain 1.46 1.85 0.033 2.38
ABL Complex Terrain 1.13 1.9 1.29 0.74
Street Canyon 1 2.2 0.12 0.42 0.462
Table 1. Closure coefficients Default and Calibrated for different surface conditions.

To obtain and validate these coefficients steps 1 and 2 of [3] in page 4, should be followed. To sum up, high
quality data is needed to define suitable validation metrics, these are wind tunnel experiments or high-
fidelity CFD, and in order to validate these, some parameters such fractional bias or hit rate are used. Once
these are done, the coefficients are considered as variables in an optimization process.

Figure 5. Distribution of TKE around the high-rise building.

As it can be seen in Figure 5, the TKE distribution once the coefficients are calibrated, is more accurate and
gives a solution nearly identical to the experimental one.

4. VALIDATION AND VERIFICATION

Even if it is not only for validation purposes, but also for the acquisition of data, wind tunnel testing of the
atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is widely used by engineers who study buildings and structures. The
earth’s atmosphere changes dramatically from ground level to the top of a building. That is the reason why
increase in the speed, decrease in the turbulence and terrain relief are simulated in them.

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 Figure 6. ABL wind tunnel.

The boundary layer is simulated by means of appropriate roughness on the wind tunnel floor upwind of the
model, also spires are used so as to generate large scale turbulence at the start of the working section.

5. CONCLUSIONS
I have done this document in order to sum up everything I have been reading, without going into detail in
anything, nevertheless, I think it contains the most remarkable things of each paper, guaranteeing a good
insight into the topic, as well as good sources where CAD and Excel files can be found.

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Bibliography

Daniel Abdi, S. L. (2009). Application of an Artificial Neural Network Model for Boundary Layer Wind. San
Juan, Puerto Rico.

Donglian Gu, A. K. (2023). A computational framework for the simulation of wind effects on buildings in a
cityscape. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics.

Japan, A. I. (2022). Guidebook for CFD Predictions. Retrieved from

https://www.aij.or.jp/jpn/publish/cfdguide/index_e.htm

Mohammadreza Shirzadi, P. A. (2020). RANS model calibration using stochastic optimization for accuracy
improvement of urban airflow CFD modeling. Journal of Building Engineering.

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