Electrostatics

 The electromagnetic force between charged particles is one of the fundamental forces of nature.
 Two of the most powerful forces in your environment — electricity and magnetism — are invisible.

Properties of Electric Charge

1. Charges of opposite sign attract one another and charges of the same sign repel one another.
2. Total charge in an isolated system is conserved.
3. Charge is quantized.

Plus and Minus: Electron and Proton Charges

 Atoms primarily consist of a nucleus containing charged protons, neutral neutrons, and lightweight electrons that orbit
the nucleus at high speeds.
 The charged particles — electrons and protons — have the same magnitude of charge, which is e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C
where C is the Coulomb, the MKS unit of charge.
 The charge of a proton is +1.6 × 10 -19 C and the charge of an electron is –1.6 × 10 -19 C (the electron’s negative charge
is just convention).
 The electrons, however, are the particles that give you static electricity and the standard electricity that flows through
wires.

Push and Pull: Electric Forces

 Take a look at Figure 1, where some balls on strings have somehow acquired electric charges.
 The like-charged pairs of balls (++ or – –) will repel each other, but the unlike pairs of charges (+– or –+) will attract
each other.

Figure 1: Attractive or repellent

forces between charges.
Charging it to Coulomb’s law
 Charge isn’t all positive or negative talk; you have to get numbers involved. How strong are the forces between
charged objects? It all depends on how much charge is involved and on how far apart the charges are. After you do
all the measuring in the lab, the electric force looks like
F = kq1q2 / r2,
 In this case, q1 and q2 are the two charges acting on each other, measured in Coulombs, and r is the distance
between them.
 A constant k whose value is 8.99 × 109 N-m2/C2.
F = kq1q2 / r2 is called Coulomb’s law.
 It gives you the magnitude of the force between charges.
 Note that when charges have the same sign, the force between them is positive, which means the charges repel
each other; when charges have opposite signs, the force between them is negative, which means the force attracts
the two charges.
 Sometimes, Coulomb’s law is written in terms of a constant ε o, which is called the permittivity of free space (the
constant has to do with how easily the electric field generated by a charge can extend through space):
F = (q1q2) / 4πεor2 The constant εo has a value of 8.854 × 10-12 C2/(n-m2).

Examples:
1. Two charges are located on the positive x-axis of a coordinate system, as shown in the figure. Charge q 1 = 2 x 10 -9 C
is 2 cm from the origin, and charge q 2 = -3 x 10 -9 C is 4 cm from the origin. What is the total force exerted by these
two charges on a charge q3 = 5 x 10 -9 C located at the origin?
O

2 cm
4 cm
2. Two identical conducting small spheres are placed with their centers 0.300 m apart. One is given a charge of 12.0 nC
and the other a charge of -18.0 nC. Find the electric force exerted by one sphere on the other.

Electric Field
 The region in which there would be a force upon a charge brought into that region is called an electric field. An electric
field is said to exist in the region of space around a charged object—the source charge. When another
charged object—the test charge—enters this electric field, an electric force acts on it.
 The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction of the force upon a positive charge placed at that point.
 If q is +, E is away from q
 If q is -, E is towards q
 Electric Field intensity, E
 E = Fe / q = kq / r2
 the unit of field intensity is N/C (MKS), dyne/statCoulumb or esu (CGS) and
1 N/C x 10 4 dyne/statC
Fe = qE: This equation gives us the force on a charged particle placed in an electric field. If q is positive, the
force is in the same direction as the field. If q is negative, the force and the field are in opposite directions.
 An electric field exists at a point if a test charge at that point experiences an electric force.

Examples:
1. What is the electric field 30 cm from a charge q = 4 x 10 -9 C?
2. When a 5 µC test charge is place at a point it experiences a force of 2 x 10 -4 N at the x direction. What is the electric
field E at the point?
3. A charge q1 = 7 µC is located origin, and a second charge q2 = - 5 µC is located on the x-axis 0.3m from the origin.
Find the electric field at the point P with coordinates (0, 0.4) m.
4. A point charge of – 5.2 µC is located at the origin. Find the electric field a) on the x-axis at x = 3 m, b) on the y-axis at
y = - 4 m, c) at the point with coordinates x = 2 m, y = 2 m.

Electric Potential Energy

- Potential energy is the energy of a system of objects dues to arrangement or configuration and can be applicable
to electric charges.
- For example, if two positive (or negative) charges q 1 and q2 are placed closer to each other, the repulsive electric
force will increase, thereby increasing the potential energy of this system of two charges.
- The potential energy in this case is positive, indicating that the two charges will separate.
- However, for a system of two oppositely charged objects, the potential energy is negative, indicating a bound
system, like the atom.
- In equation form, the electric potential energy U, which is a scalar quantity, is
U = k q1q2 / r
- The signs of the charges are included when using this equation.
- In the MKS system, U is measured in Joules (J) when the charges are in Coulombs (C), and the distance is in
meters (m).
- When a charge q is moved from one point to another by an external force the work W done by this force is equal
to the difference in electric potential energy between the points. Thus,
W = Ufinal - Uinitial

Examples:
1. A small plastic ball having mass 2.0 gm and electric charge +0.10 µC moves in the vicinity of a stationary metal
ball with a charge of +2.0 µC. When the plastic ball is 0.1 m from the metal one, it is moving directly away from it
with a speed of 5.0 m/s.
a) What is its speed when the two balls are 0.2 m apart?
b) How would the situation change if the plastic ball had a charge of -0.1 µC?
2. A point charge with charge Q = =4.0 µC is held fixed at the origin.
a) A second point charge q = -0.5 µC and mass 3 x 10 -4 kg is placed on the x-axis, 0.8 m from the origin. What
is the electrical potential energy of the pair of charges?
b) The second point charge is released at rest. What is its speed when it is 0.4 m from the origin?

Electric Potential and Voltage

- When electric potential energy U per unit charge q is considered, the concept of electric potential V arises. Thus,
V = U/q
- In the MKS system, V is measured in Volts (V) when the electric potential energy is in Joules (J) and the charge is
in Coulomb (C).
- V is a scalar quantity which can be used to describe the space around an electric charge.
- If it is a negative charge that is concerned, the electric potential is negative.
- Oppositely, the electric potential around a positive charge is positive. Since the space around a charge can be
described both by V (a scalar quantity) and E, it is possible to obtain a relationship between this two. In the simple
case where E is constant, V is equal to the product of E and the distance between two points in this space. That
is,
V = Ed
 - The concept of voltage is closely related to electric potential, since it refers simply to a difference in electric
potential. That is
V = Vfinal - Vinitial
- Also, voltage refers to the work done per unit charge q in transferring a charge at constant speed between two
points that have different potentials.

In our daily life, we encounter voltage when we plug or switch on a 220 V electric appliance. When we do this, we
are actually connecting one end of the appliance to a higher potential, (thus, to a higher potential) and the other
end to a lower potential between the positive and negative ends of the battery (or cell).

Examples:
1. What is the electric potential at a point where a charge of 3 µC has an electric potential energy of 20 J?
2. Point charges of +12 x 10 -9 C and -12 x 10 -9 C are placed 10 cm apart as in the figure. Compute the potentials at
points a, b, and c.
3. Refer to the figure above, compute the potential energy of a point charge of +4 x 10 -9 C if placed at points a, b,
and c.
4. The potential at a certain distance from a point charge is 600 V, and the electric field is 200 N/C.
a) What is the distance to the point charge?
b) What is the magnitude of the charge?

Capacitance

A Capacitor is a device that stores charge. Often, although certainly not always. It consists of two conductors separated
by an insulator or dielectric. The capacitance © of a capacitor is defined as

Q
C=
V ab

For q in coulombs and V in volts, C is in farads (F)

Capacitors in in Series and Parallel

Series Connection:

Parallel Connection:

Energy Stored In a Capacitor. The energy stored (PEE) in a capacitor of capacitance C that has acharge q and a
potential difference V is
Examples:
1. Two capacitors, C1 = 5.00 μF and C2 = 12.0 μF, are connected in parallel, and the resulting combination is connected
to a 9.00-V battery. (a) What is the equivalent capacitance of the combination? What are (b) the potential difference
across each capacitor and (c) the charge stored on each capacitor?
2. What If? The two capacitors of Example 1 are now connected in series and to a 9.00-V battery. Find (a) the
equivalent capacitance of the combination, (b) the potential difference across each capacitor, and (c) the charge on
each capacitor.
3. Four capacitors are connected as shown in the figure below (a) Find the equivalent capacitance between points a and
b. (b) Calculate the charge on each capacitor if Vab = 15.0 V. (c) Find the potential difference across each capacitor.

Current, Resistance, and Ohm’s Law

A Current (I) of electricity exists in a region when a net electric charge is transferred from one point to another in that
region. The currrent of a charge q transported through a given cross section of a wire in a time t is

q
I=
t
Here, q is in coulombs, t is in seconds, and I is in amperes (1A = 1C/s). By custom the direction of the current is taken to
be in the direction of flow of positive charge. Thus, a flow of electrons to the right corresponds to a current to the left.

The Resistance (R) of a wire or other object is a measure of the potential difference (V) that must be impressed across
the object to cause a current of 1 A to flow through it

V
R=
I
The unit of resistance is the ohm, for which the symbol Ω = 1 V/A.

Ohm’s Law
V =IR

The equation above is applied to any resistor, where V is the potential difference (p.d) between the two ends of the
resistor, I is the current through the resistor, and R is the resistance of the resistor.

Electromotive Force

A Battery is a source of electrical energy. If no internal energy losses occur in the battery, then the potential difference
between terminals is called electromotive force (emf) of the battery. The terminal potential difference of a battery is
equal to its emf. The unit of emf is the same as the unit of potential difference, volt (V).

A battery in a circuit diagrams is a source of energy for the circuit. Because the potential difference at the battery
terminals is constant in a particular circuit, the current in the circuit is constant in magnitude and direction and is called
direct current.

A battery is called either a source of electromotive force or, more commonly, a source of emf. (The phrase
electromotive force is an unfortunate historical term, describing not a force but rather a potential difference in volts.)

The emf ε of a battery is the maximum possible voltage that the battery can provide between its terminals. It is a source of
emf as a “charge pump.” When an electric potential difference exists between two points, the source moves charges
“uphill” from the lower potential to the higher.

Consider the circuit shown in the figure, consisting of a battery connected to a resistor. We shall generally assume that
the connecting wires have no resistance.
Measurement of Resistance by Ammeter and Voltmeter

V
From Ohm’s Law, R=
I

The Terminal Potential Difference (or Voltage) of a battery or generator when it delivers a current I is related to its
electromotive force e and its internal resistance R as follows:

Resistivity: the resistance R of a wire of length L and a cross-sectional area A is

L
R=ρ
A

where ρ is a constant called the resistivity. The resistivity is a characteristic of the material from which the wire is made.
For L in m, A in m2, and R in Ω, the unit of ρ = Ω.m.

 Resistivity is a property of a substance, while resistance is a property of an object. Another similar pair of
variables is density is a property of a substance, while mass is a property of an object.
Resistors

Most elctric circuits are circuit elements called resistors to control the current level in the various parts of the circuit.

Values of resistors in ohms are normally indicated by color coding as shown in the tables below.

Examples:
1. A steady current of 0.50 A flows through a wire. How much charge passes through the wire in one minute?
2. A light bulb has a resistance of 240 Ω when lit. How much current will flow through it when it is connected across 120
V, its normal operating voltage?
3. An electric heater uses 5.0 a when connected across 110 V. Determine its resistance.
4. What is the potential drop across an electric hot plate that draws 5.0 A when its hot resistance is 24 Ω
5. A current of 3.0 A flows through the wire shown in the figure. What will a voltmeter read when connected from (a) A to
B, (b) A to C, (c) A to D?

6. A dry cell has an emf of 1.52 V. its terminal potential drops to zero when a current of 25 A passes through it. What is
its internal resistance?
7. A direct current generator has an emf of 120 V; that is, its terminal voltage is 120 V when no current is flowing from it.
At an output of 20 A, the terminal potential is 115 V. (a) What is the internal resistance r of the generator? (b) What
will be the terminal voltage at an output of 40 A?
8. As shown in the figure below, the ammeter-voltmeter method is used to measure an unknown resistance R. The
ammeter reads 0.3 A, and the voltmeter reads 1.5 V. compute the value of R if the ammeter and voltmeter are ideal.

Electric Power

The Electric Power (in watts) delivered by an energy source as it carries a charge q (in coulombs) through a potential
rise V (in volts) in a time t (in seconds) is
work
Power finished=
time

Vq
P=
t
The Electrical Work (in Joules) required to transfer a charge q (in coulombs) through a potential difference V (in volts) si
given by
W =qV

When q and V are given their proper signs (I,e. voltage rises positive, and drops negative), the work will have its proper
sign. Thus, to carry a positive charge through a potential rise, a positive amount of work must be done on the charge.

q
Because = I, this can be rewritten as
t

P=VI ; where I is in ampere.

The Power Loss in a Resistor is found by replacing V in VI by IR, or by replacing I in VI by V/R, to obtain
2
2 V
P=VI =I R=
R

The Thermal Energy Generated in a Resistor per second is equal to the power loss in the resistor.

2
P=VI =I R
Conversions:

Examples:
1. Compute the work and the average power required to transfer 96 kC of charge in one hour (1.0 h) through a potential
rise of 50 V.
2. How much current does a 60 W light bulb draw when connected to its proper voltage, 120 V?
3. An electric motor takes 5.0 A from 110 V line. Determine the power input and the energy, in J and kW.h, supplied to
the motor in 2.0 h.
4. An electric iron of resistance 20 Ω takes a current of 5.0 A. Calculate the thermal energy, in joules developed in 30 s.
5. An electric heater is constructed by applying a potential difference of 120 V to a Nichrome wire that has a total
resistance of 8.00 Ω. Find the current carried by the wire and the power rating of the heater.

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors in Series

For a series combination of two resistors, the currents are the same in both resistors because the amount of charge that
passes through R1 must also pass through R2 in the same time interval.

RT =R1 + R2 +…+ R n

In a series combination, the current through each resistance is the same as that through all the others. The potential drop
across the combination is equal to the sum of the potential drops. The equivalent resistance is always greater than the
largest of the individual resistances.

Resistors in Parallel

1 1 1 1
= + + …+
R eq R1 R❑ 2 Rn

In parallel combination, the potential drop V across each resistor is the same as the potential drop across each of the
others. The total current entering the combination is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.

Examples:

1. Given three resistors are connected with a 15 V source and having resistances, R 1 = 2 Ω, R2 = 4 Ω, and R3 = 6 Ω.
Find the total resistance, the current through each resistor, and the potential difference across each resistor if they are
connected in a) series, and b) in parallel.
2. As shown in the figure, a) a battery (internal resistance 1 Ω) is connected in series with two resistors. Compute a) the
current in the circuit, b) the p.d. across each resistor, and c) the terminal p.d. of the battery.
3. In the circuit shown, determine the equivalent resistance and the currents I1, I5 and I8.

4. A 120-V house circuit has the following light bulbs turned on: 40.0 W, 60.0 W, and 75.0 W. Find the equivalent
resistance of these lights.

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Node (or Junction Rule): the sum of all the current coming into a node (i.e. junction where three or more
current-carrying leads attach) must equal the sum of all the currents leaving that node.
∑ I ¿ =∑ I out

Kirchhoff’s Loop (or Circuit) Rule: the sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed circuit
must be zero. In this sum, a potential rise is positive and apotential drop is negative. Current always flows from high
potential to low potential through a resistor. As one traces through aresistor in the direction of the current, the potential
change is negative because it is a potential drop. The positive terminal of a pure emf is always the high-potential terminal,
independent of the direction of the current through the emef source.

∑ ∆ V =0
 Because charges move from the high-potential end of a resistor toward the low-potential end, if a resistor is traversed
in the direction of the current, the potential difference ΔV across the resistor is - IR. (Fig. a)
 If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the potential difference ΔV across the resistor is + IR
(Fig.b).
 If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is traversed in the direction of the emf (from - to +), the
potential difference ΔV is + ϵ (Fig.c). the emf of the battery increases the lectric potential as we move through in this
direction.
 If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is traversed in the direction oppposite the emf (from + to
-), the potential difference ΔV is - ϵ (Fig.d). in this case the emf of the battery reduces the elctric potential as we move
through it.

Examples:

1. Find the currents in the circuit shown in Figure 29.1.

2. In Fig. 29.2, find I1, I2, and I3 if switch is (a) open and (b) closed.

3. Find the currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit shown in the figure.