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Influence of Grit Blasting On Residual Stress Depth
Influence of Grit Blasting On Residual Stress Depth
Influence of Grit Blasting On Residual Stress Depth
This work deals with the effect of grit blasting on the surface and in-depth properties of a
number of commercially available metals/alloys, i.e., low carbon steel, C45 steel, SS316,
Ti-6Al-4V, Inconel 718, and Hastelloy X. The residual stress depth profile and dislocation
density of the specimens were determined using X-ray diffraction. A substantial increase in
dislocation density was observed after grit blasting. A transmission electron microscope was
utilized to observe the dislocation structure in a grit-blasted specimen. Strain hardening was also
observed at the blasted surface owing to dislocation interaction and entanglement. The hardness
profile followed a trend similar to that of dislocation density along the depth of grit-blasted low
carbon steel. Moreover, compressive residual stress is induced in the blasted surface having a
maximum value at a certain depth. The maximum induced compressive residual stress was
found to have a good correlation with the Johnson–Cook flow stress. Moreover, the depth of
the affected layer and the increase in hardness were found to depend on the yield strength and
the strain hardening exponent of the materials, respectively. A plastic deformation-induced
phase transformation from austenite to martensite was also identified in the case of SS316.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-020-06055-x
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2020
Elements Fe C P Mn S
[17]
Low Carbon Steel (Wt Pct) balance 0.2 0.04 0.3 0.05
Elements Fe C Mn Si Cr P S Mo Ni Cu Al
[23]
C45 Steel (Wt Pct) balance 0.45 0.65 0.25 0.4 0.008 0.025 0.1 0.4 0.17 0.01
Elements Fe C Cr Ni Se Si Mn Mo
[24]
SS316 (Wt Pct) balance 0.02 16.3 10.2 5.4 0.455 1.5 2.08
Elements Ti Al V Fe C O H N
[25]
Ti-6Al-4V (Wt Pct) balance 6.08 4.02 0.22 0.02 0.18 0.0053 0.01
Elements Ni Cr Mo Nb Fe Co Cu Ti Al C
[26]
Inconel 718 (Wt Pct) balance 19.06 3.04 5.08 18.15 0.11 0.02 0.93 0.52 0.021
Elements Ni Cr Fe Mo Co Mn Si W C
Hastelloy X[27] (Wt Pct) balance 22 18 9 1.5 1 1 0.6 0.1
the strain is uniform along all the crystallographic In case of BCC crystal, most favorable slip plane is of
directions. The Williamson–Hall equation is given by, {1 1 0} type and the slip direction is of h1 1 1i type. The
kk Burgers vector is expressed as follows: b~ ¼ a2 h111i,
b cos h ¼ þ 4e sin h ½1 where a is the lattice
constant. Therefore, the magnitude
D pffiffi
~ a pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
of the vector is b ¼ 2 1 þ 1 þ 12 ¼ 23a. Similarly, in
2 2
where 2h is the position of the peaks, b is FWHM of
different peaks, k is shape factor (k = 0.9), k is the the case of FCC crystal, most favorable slip plane and
wavelength of X-ray (k = 1.54 Å), D is crystallite size, direction are of {1 1 1} and h1 1 0i types, respectively.
and e is microstrain. The values of D and e are calcu- Therefore,
the Burgers vector is b~ ¼ a2 h110i and
lated from the intercept and slope, respectively, from ~ a pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ¼ 2 12 þ 12 þ 02 ¼ paffiffi. On the other hand, for
b cos h vs 4 sin h plot. The dislocation density of the 2
blasted and non-blasted specimens was then estimated HCP crystal, most favorable slip plane is the basal
using the following formula,[21,22] plane and the direction is of 1120 type. Hence, the
pffiffiffi 1=2 Burgers vector is b~ ¼ a3 h11
20i and
2 3 e2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffi
~ a 2
q¼ ~ ½2 b ¼ 3 12 þ 12 þ ð2Þ þ02 ¼ p2ffiffi3a, where a is the basal
bD lattice parameter. Table III lists the calculated values of
the Burgers vector of the considered materials.
where b~ is the Burgers vector. The Burgers vector (b~) Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction pattern of SS316
signifies the distortion in a crystal lattice that is is obtained by Cu Ka radiation in 40 deg £ 2h £ 55 deg
generated owing to dislocation. It is denoted as the with an incidence angle of 1 deg and 0.03 deg step size
shortest lattice translation vector along the slip direction to examine the formation of deformation-induced
in a most favorable slip plane (closely packed plane). martensite.
The Burgers vectors were calculated considering a The blasted and non-treated specimens were cross
(BCC lattice) peaks for low carbon steel and C45 steel, a sectioned, polished, and metallographically etched to
(HCP lattice) peaks for Ti-6Al-4V and c (FCC lattice) obtain cross-sectional views. The prepared cross-sec-
for SS316, Inconel 718 and Hastelloy X. tions were utilized for microhardness measurement as
Amount of
Material
Materials Electrolyte Voltage (V) Time Removed (lm)
[35]
Low carbon steel 50 pct H3PO4+ 20 pct H2SO4+ 30 pct H2O 15 1 min 20
C45 steel 50 pct H3PO4+ 20 pct H2SO4+ 30 pct H2O[35] 25 1 min 20
SS316 50 pct H3PO4+ 20 pct H2SO4+ 30 pct H2O[35] 15 1 min 30 s 20
Ti-6Al-4V 700 mL ethyl alcohol+ 300 mL isopropyl alcohol + 60 g AlCl3+ 60 2 min 20
250 g ZnCl2[36]
Inconel 718 600 mL methanol + 330 mL HNO3[37] 18 35 s 20
Hastelloy X 600 mL methanol + 330 mL HNO3[37] 17 40 s 20
hardness of the other materials lie between these two F. X-Ray Diffraction Results
limits. Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction result of
Figure 6 shows the depth profiles of dislocation grit-blasted SS316 revealed a low-intensity martensite
density as well as the microhardness of grit-blasted peak at 2h ~ 44.5 deg. The GI-XRD patterns of
low carbon steel. The dislocation density along the annealed and annealed grit-blasted samples are shown
depth follows a trend similar to that of hardness. in Figure 7(a).The austenite and martensite peaks are
Fig. 2—SEM images of (a) alumina grit of 24 mesh size before blasting and (b) eroded alumina grit after blasting.
Fig. 3—Cross-sectional back-scattered electron (BSE) images of low carbon steel (a) before grit blasting and (b) after blasting using alumina
grits.
Condition Low Carbon Steel C45 Steel SS316 Ti-6Al-4V Inconel 718 Hastelloy X
12 13 14 14 13
As-Received 4.34 9 10 5.67 9 10 1.11 9 10 5.06 9 10 6.21 9 10 6.16 9 1013
Annealed 5.91 9 1011 5.39 9 1012 8.77 9 1013 1.11 9 1013 2.86 9 1012 4.32 9 1013
Annealed Grit Blasted 6.31 9 1014 7.13 9 1014 2.38 9 1015 3.43 9 1015 1.87 9 1015 2.63 9 1015
Fig. 4—TEM micrographs showing dislocation structures in (a) annealed and (b) annealed grit-blasted low carbon steel specimens at a depth of
50 lm from the surface.
G. Residual Stress parameter (1/Sa) profile was similar to the residual stress
Residual stress depth profiles of the grit-blasted and profile.
non-blasted specimens of different metallic substrates
evaluated by X-ray sin2w technique is shown in
Figures 9(a) through (f). The graphs show that a IV. DISCUSSION
compressive residual stress depending upon the mechan-
ical properties of the materials is induced on the blasted Figure 1 shows rough surfaces having signatures of
surfaces. In each case, the highest residual stress is microcutting and indentation after grit blasting of
recorded slightly below the top surface. This is followed different materials. At a low impingement angle, the
by a steady decrease of compressive stress with depth material is removed from the substrate surface by
and finally become tensile. microcutting and ploughing.[38] On the other hand, the
primary mode of material removal is indentation and
extrusion at an impact angle of 90 deg. Repeated impact
H. Roughness Variation After Electropolishing of the abrasive grits on the surface leads to the
An interesting observation was made after removing formation of platelets (shown by rectangles in
successive layers from the grit-blasted samples by Figure 1) with extruded materials at the periphery.
electropolishing. Figure 10 shows the variation of However, prolonged impact of the abrasive particles
inverse of the roughness of electropolished surface (1/ eventually leads to erosion of the extruded material
Sa) with depth for the annealed grit-blasted low carbon from the surface.[39] Although the present study was
steel specimen. The residual stress is also plotted in the undertaken at a nominal impingement angle of 90 deg,
same figure. The as-grit-blasted sample had a high both mechanisms, namely, indentation and microcut-
roughness value (Sa = 3.52 ± 0.18 lm). The roughness ting, were found to be active concurrently. This is
of the electropolished surfaces was found to decrease attributed to the motion characteristics of the abrasive
with depth, and finally, a steady roughness value was particles entrained in the air jet during grit blasting. In
obtained. In other words, the inverse of the roughness addition to translation, the abrasive particles undergo
rotation while coming out of the nozzle. This rotational The grit materials also demonstrated signatures of
component can influence the effective impact angles of surface damage. Upon collision with the substrate, the
individual abrasive grits[40] bringing about both micro- sharp edges of the grits are broken. Moreover, the
cutting and indentation. incoming abrasive particles from the nozzle collide with
Fig. 7—Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction pattern of SS316 with an incidence angle of 1 deg and 0.03 deg step size (a) annealed and annealed
grit-blasted samples, (b) deconvoluted peaks of austenite and martensite in the 2h range of 41 to 47 deg.
Fig. 8—(a) X-ray diffraction patterns of annealed and grit-blasted low carbon steel substrates, (b) magnified view of (3 1 0) peak in the 2h range
of 113 to 120 deg.
absorption of dislocations at grain boundaries during Figure 4(b) also reveals the region showing disloca-
recovery stage.[42] Figure 4(a) shows a TEM micrograph tion interaction and entanglement (shown using an
of annealed low carbon steel specimen indicating low ellipse) in grit-blasted low carbon steel substrate. Dis-
dislocation density. A high density of dislocations in the location entanglement occurs during dislocation move-
grit-blasted sample is observed in Figure 4(b). ment at intersecting slip planes. At that instant, higher
Table VIII. The Values of Yield Strength, Strain Hardening Exponent, Depth of Affected Layer, Maximum Compressive Residual
Stress, and Percentage Increase in Hardness of the Materials Under Investigation
Fig. 11—Correlation between (a) depth of the affected layer and yield strength and (b) percentage increase in hardness and strain hardening
exponent.
Condition (1 1 0) (2 0 0) (2 1 1) (2 2 0) (3 1 0) (2 2 2)
Annealed (AN) 1.538 0.703 0.672 1.142 1.144 0.798
Annealed Grit Blasted (AN_GB) 1.458 0.738 1.128 1.008 1.008 0.642
specimen. The microhardness profile has also been accomplished by analyzing peak shifting and broaden-
shown in the same plot. The dislocation density profile ing. Figures 7 and 8 show the evidence of shifting and
follows a similar trend as that of the hardness with the broadening of X-ray diffraction peaks after grit blasting
specimen depth. The top layer receives the impinging of low carbon steel substrate. A reduction in maximum
abradants during grit blasting. Hence, the top layer peak intensities of the diffraction peaks was also
harbors a high dislocation density. The effect of impact, observed after grit blasting. This is attributed to the
i.e., the degree of deformation, reduces with depth. roughening of the substrate surface after repeated
Hence, the dislocation density reduces with the depth of abrasive grit impacts. Moreover, there is a possibility
the grit-blasted specimen. The extremely work-hardened of crystallographic texture generation after plastic
top layer also has a high hardness. The degree of work deformation in grit-blasted material. This may lead to
hardening reduces with the depth and so does the a change in the integrated intensity as well.[53,54]
hardness. Preferential growth of some particular plane is observed
Figure 11(a) shows depth of affected layer vs yield in the grit-blasted material. This is assessed by calcula-
strength plot of various materials. The affected layer tion of texture coefficient values of the crystallographic
depth tends to vary with the yield strength in a planes in a material. The texture coefficient (Tc) of a
somewhat linear fashion. Ti-6Al-4V with its higher yield crystallographic plane (h k l) is calculated using the
strength has a thinner affected layer. On the other hand, following equation[32]:
low carbon steel, with its lower yield strength, offers a
much thicker affected layer (Table VIII). Therefore, it IðhklÞ IoðhklÞ
TcðhklÞ ¼ hP i ½4
can be concluded that the yield strength of the materials 1=N N
1 IðhklÞ IoðhklÞ
significantly influences the depth of affected layer in grit
blasting. On the other hand, the increase in hardness of where I(h k l) and Io(h k l) are the measured and relative
different materials relies on the ability of the materials to intensity of the corresponding lattice plane, and N is the
work harden. The strain hardening exponent (n) is a number of reflections. The calculated texture coefficients
measure of work or strain hardening behavior of for annealed (AN) and annealed grit blasted (AN_GB)
materials. Larger the value of strain hardening expo- for low carbon steel specimen are listed in Table IX. An
nent, higher would be the hardening for a given plastic increase in the Tc value for (2 0 0) and (2 1 1) planes in
strain.[50] A linear correlation was found between the the grit-blasted specimen is observed from the table.
percentage increase in hardness after grit blasting and Therefore, it can be said that these planes grow
the strain hardening exponents of the materials, as preferentially as compared to the other planes owing
plotted in Figure 11(b). The increase in subsurface to severe plastic deformation during grit blasting
hardness is maximum (80 pct) for SS316 with a strain process.
hardening exponent of n =0.8722,[46] whereas, in the The peak broadening is affected by various factors,
case of C45 steel (n = 0.25,[45] only 43 pct hardness e.g., grain size, strain, and broadening owing to instru-
increase was observed. mental errors.[55] This peak broadening and conse-
Grit blasting of SS316 resulted in a phase transfor- quently the plastic deformation after grit blasting can
mation from austenite to martensite as indicated in be assessed by observing full width at half maximum
Figure 7. This phase change is attributed to severe (FWHM) of a particular X-ray diffraction peak of a
plastic deformation owing to grit blasting.[51] The material. FWHM values of the same peak used for stress
estimated X-ray penetration depth of Cu-Ka radiation measurement of different materials are plotted against
at 1 deg incidence angle is nearly 240 nm. Therefore, it depth as shown in Figures 12(a) through (f). The
may be assumed that the martensite is induced very near averages of FWHM values of eleven peaks correspond-
to the blasted surface. Multigner et al.[52] also identified ing to each stage tilt angles are presented along with an
deformation-induced a martensite in Al2O3 and ZrO2- error bar. The FWHM values of the grit-blasted samples
blasted 316 LVM steel. They, however, described the were found to be higher as compared to the non-treated
formation of martensite inside a thinner severely samples. Moreover, the FWHM values gradually
deformed layer (less than 100 nm) using less energetic decrease with depth and finally reduce to that of the
Co radiation. annealed sample. This indicates that the deformation is
As expected, residual stress is also induced on the maximum at the blasted surface and decreases with the
blasted surface owing to plastic deformation. The depth.
measurement of residual stress using XRD is
Figure 9 shows the residual stress depth profiles of underlying material restricts that plastic flow, and hence,
different substrate materials. A compressive residual a compressive stress is induced at the blasted surface.
stress field with a maximum value at a certain depth was However, the deformation on the blasted top surface is
induced after grit blasting. During grit blasting, the restricted only by the underlying material but the
impacted grits try to make the material flow outwards material at a certain depth is hindered by both top
by deforming the work material plastically. The and bottom layer of material. Moreover, stress
For Ti-6Al-4V,[47]
h i
rðMPaÞ ¼ 980:8 þ 732:16e0:5387 ½1 þ 0:01829 ln e_ 1 T0:834 ½9