3506FETQR

Introductory Foundation Physics

Lecture 3

Measurement and
Analysis

By
Dr. Vida Zadeh
Objectives:-
1. Measurement of Time
2. Measurement, Calculations & Uncertainties
3. Estimates & Order-of-Magnitude Calculations
4. Units and Standards
5. Units’ Conversions
6. Problem Solving

Edexcel A/AS Level Physics 1, Topic 1:- 1.1-1 Units and

1.1-2 Estimation
 Keeping Time
Around 1570 -1600, the times of the famous astronomers, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler,
clocks were subject to errors of between 100 and 1000 seconds per day.

Johannes Kepler Tycho Brahe

1571 - 1630 1546 - 1601
German Astronomer Danish Astronomer
 Measurements, Calculations & Uncertainties

By 9.2 cm, we mean a length

is closer to 9.2 cm, than to
either 9.1 cm or 9.3 cm

Had we estimated between

the 0.1 cm division, or used
a ruler with finer
divisions, e.g. 0.01, then we
might have said that the Here we say 2.56
length was 9.23 cm

Vernier caliper or micrometer screw gauge

Measurements, Calculations & Uncertainties
Measured values are often used to calculate other quantities.
For example, we can determine the circumference, C, of a circle from a
measurement of the radius, r, of the circle and the expression:-

𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
The value of “𝜋" is well known and has been determined to many significant
figures (> 1 million digits by 1973).
To seven significant figures, 𝜋 = 3.141593
If we had measured the radius of a circle to be 1.60 cm, the direct
application of the equation would give a numerical answer of :-

𝐶 = 10.05309760 𝑐𝑚
However, this is not a physically meaningful or sensible answer. The
circumference can be known only to the same precision as the radius.
Measurements, Calculations & Uncertainties

In this case, the precision is three significant figures.

We round off the answer to the correct number of significant figures:-

𝐶 = 10.1 cm ( round up)

Another example:-
Calculate the area of a paper-back book cover, suppose the cover is a
rectangle whose sides we measure, to be 10.6 cm and 17.9 cm

To find the area A of a rectangle, we multiply the length 𝑙 times the

width 𝑤 :-

𝐴=𝑙 ×𝑤
Measurements, Calculations & Uncertainties
The General rule is that:
Your answer must have no more significant figures, than is warranted by the
least precise of your values (that is, the value with the fewest significant
figures).

In the preceding example, the result of 190 cm2 was correct to three sig.
figures, so that the zero was a significant figure.

To clearly indicate the number of significant figures, we often express a

number in scientific notation : a x 10n where “a” is a real number less than 10
and “n” is a positive or negative integer

Thus, we can write 190 cm2 as 1.90 × 102 cm2

The presence of the final zero, indicates that the number is known to three
significant figures.
Measurements, Calculations, & Uncertainties
Example
Calculate the volume of a cylindrical oil can with a diameter of 9.9 cm and a height of 13.5 cm

9.9 cm

13.5 cm
Measurements, Calculations, & Uncertainties
Example
Calculate the volume of a cylindrical oil can with a diameter of 9.9 cm and a height of 13.5 cm

Solution
The volume of a cylinder is the product of the height, h, and the area of the base, which is given
by:-
𝑑 2
𝐴= 𝜋 where 𝑑 is the diameter. Thus, the volume becomes:-
2 9.9 cm
2
𝑑
𝑉 = ℎ𝐴 = ℎ𝜋
2
Inserting the values for ℎ and 𝑑, we get 13.5 cm
9.9 2
𝑉 = 13.5 × 𝜋 × 𝑐𝑚2
2
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗. 𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒎𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟏𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑
However, since the diameter is known to only two significant figures,
the answer must be rounded off to give 𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Measurements, Calculations, & Uncertainties
1. What happens if the question gave you the radius to be 4.95 cm?

Or,

2. If it stated that d = 9.9 cm and asked you for the radius?

9.9 cm

13.5 cm
1.

𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑
Three significant figures, since both height and
radius are 3 sig. fig.
2.

Radius is 5.0 cm
Two significant figures, since “d” is in two sig. fig.

You can’t be more precise than your smallest

number of sig. fig.
Measurements, Calculations & Uncertainties
A further justification for the use of scientific notation, is that it provides an
easier way of writing large and small numbers and of doing arithmetic with
them.
To see how, we can write the number 1000 as 10 × 10 × 10 = 103
In general, we may write multiples of 10 or 1Τ10 as shown in the Table.
With this notation, we can conveniently express very large and very small
numbers.
Powers of Ten
Using scientific notation:- 1
10−3 = = 0.001
127,000,000 = 1.27 × 100,000,000 = 1.27 × 108 1000
1
10−2 = = 0.010
100
1
0.00037 = 3.7 × 0.0001 = 3.7 × 10−4 10−1 = = 0.100
10
Scientific notation may be multiplied and divided according to the usual 100 = 1
rules of algebra:- 101 = 10
10𝑎 102 = 100
10𝑛 × 10𝑚 = 10𝑛+𝑚 and 10𝑏 = 10𝑎 −𝑏
103 = 1000
• 1.66 × 10−24
• the power of 10 is the order of
magnitude
• Here it is -24
• Break
 Units and Standards
In all of Physics, there are only seven base units corresponding to the quantities
of Length, Mass, Time, Electric Current, Temperature, the Amount of Substance
and Luminous Intensity.

The SI units (International System of Units) are largely based on the metric
system.

In the past, this system of units was called the mks system in reference to the base
units of metre, kilogram and second.
SI Base Units
Quantity Name Symbol
Length Metre M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electric Current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin K
Temperature
Amount of Substance Mole Mol
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
 Units and Standards
The basic unit of length (metre) was approved by the first General
Conference on Weight and Measures in 1889.

It was defined to be the distance between two fine lines engraved near
the ends of a bar of platinum-iridium alloy, when maintained at 0⁰C.

The metre was originally chosen to be one-tenth-millionth of the distance

from the Equator to the North Pole, along a meridian (longitudinal line
from North to South pole) through Paris.

It has now been re-defined in terms of the speed of light.

The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum, during a time interval of 1/299792458 of a second.
 Units and Standards
It is often more convenient to use the shorter symbol for a unit, than to use its name,
i.e. 10 kg instead of 10 Kilograms.
Several rules govern the writing and use of these unit symbols.
Roman letters, generally lower case, is used for symbols of units. However, if the
symbols are derived from proper names (eg. Newton, Pascal etc), capital Roman type is
used for the first letter.
A product of two or more units may be indicated by:-
𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑚
A unit may also be raised to a power as:-
𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑚2
Units formed from two others by division, may be indicated by a horizontal line, a
solidus (an oblique line /) or a negative power:-
𝑚
, 𝑚Τ𝑠 or m ∙ 𝑠 −1
𝑠
In complicated cases, negative powers or parentheses should be used:-
𝑚 . 𝑘𝑔Τ 𝑠 3 ∙ 𝐴 or 𝑚 ∙ 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑠 −3 ∙ 𝐴−1
 Units and Standards
When we make a statement about a physical quantity, like:- the
mass of a proton is 1.66 × 10−24 𝑔, the datum (datum is single for the
word:- data) consists of three parts:-

The number of order of the unit = 1.66

the power of ten = 10−24
and, the units, is the gram 𝑔

In quoting physical quantities, it is usually more important to get

the power of 10 and the units correct, i.e. be sure of the order of
magnitude – than it is to only quote the digits at the beginning.

Remember, in PHYSICS, data quoted without units are devoid of

meaning.
 5. Unit Conversions
Frequently, you will need to change from one set of units to
another.

Adopting a systematic method for doing this, will almost ensure

error-free conversion.

The rule is to write the conversion factor as a fraction, whose

numerator and denominator are physically equal (they
correspond to the same physical quantity); that is the numerator
(in one set of units) equals the denominator (in another set of
units).

Then, multiply the quantity to be converted by this fraction.

 Unit Conversions
A car has the speed of 30 mi / h.

What is the speed in cm / s given that 1 mil = 5280 ft and 1 ft = 30.48 cm?

𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑖 1ℎ 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 5280 𝑓𝑡 30.48 𝑐𝑚

30 = 30 ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
ℎ ℎ 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠 1 𝑚𝑖 1 𝑓𝑡

𝑚𝑖
30 = 1341 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 = 1.341 × 103 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
ℎ
Alternatively, you can think of it that 30 mi = 30 x 5280 x 30.48 cm
= 4828032 cm
Therefore, 30 mi/h = 4828032 cm/h
And since 1 hr = 3600 sec
Then 30 mi/h = 4828032/3600 cm/s = 1341 cm/s = 1.341 × 103 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
 Unit Conversions
Length, Area, Time
Volume 1
1 year 365 days = 3.1558 ×
1 inch 2.54 cm (exact) 4
7
10 𝑠
1 ft 30.48 cm (exact)
1d 86,400 s
1m 39.37 in
1h 3600 s
1 mi 1.6093440 km
Pressure
1 litre 103 𝑐𝑚3 = 10−3 𝑚3
1 Pa 1 𝑁 Τ𝑚 2
Energy &
1 atm 1.01325 × 105 𝑃𝑎
Power
1 mm 133.3 Pa
1J 0.239 cal
Hg
1 kWh 3.60 × 106 J
1 6895 Pa
1 eV 1.602 × 10−19 J 𝑙𝑏Τ𝑖𝑛 2
1u 931.49432 MeV Mass
1 hp 746 W 1 kg 1000g
Force 1u 1.6605402 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
1 kg 2.205 lb
1 lb 4.448 N
 Summary
The results of a calculation may not have more significant figures than the
least precise of the values used.
Numbers expressed in scientific notation, can be multiplied and divided in the
following way:-
𝐴 × 10𝑛 × 𝐵 × 10𝑚 = 𝐴 × 𝐵 × 10 (𝑛+𝑚)

𝐶 × 10𝑛 𝐶
= × 10(𝑛−𝑚)
𝐷 × 10𝑚 𝐷
There are seven SI units or standards, the names of those for mass, length and
time are kilogram, metre and second respectively.

To convert from one system of units to another, first write the conversion
factor, whose numerator and denominator are physically equal and then
multiply this by the quantity to be converted.
 6. Problem Solving
Learning Physics requires more than just learning new terms and definitions and stating
the concepts and laws.

To find out what Physics is really about, you must learn to apply these concepts and laws
to real or hypothetical situations.

Practice is the most important thing; the following general rules to be helpful:-

1. Read the entire problem carefully. Then, read it again with the idea of finding out what
you are being told. Don’t worry about the question at first; focus more on what are being
told.

2. Whenever possible, draw a diagram of the physical situation. Label the diagram with
the information given in the problem. Be sure to include units, such as metres, kilograms,
with the quantities. If some standards symbols have been introduced, label the parts of
the diagram with them too. Example, you might encounter R for radius, h for height, or L
for distance.

3. Only after you are sure that you DO understand what is given and after you have
labelled the diagram, then you should start tackling the question.
 Problem Solving
4. The next step is to find a mathematical relationship between the known and
unknown quantities.

5. Next, you should solve the equation or equations for the unknown quantity or
quantities. This means rearranging the formula in accord with the rules of algebra so
that you have an equation with the unknown on the left-hand side of the equal sign
and all the known quantities and constants on the right-hand side.

6. Now, substitute numerical values into the equation. Not just the bare numbers, but
the numerical value and its units and multiply and divide them as they were algebraic
quantities.

Your answer should then come out in the appropriate units. If the units do not come
out correctly, you have probably made some basic error. On the other hand, if the units
are correct, there is a higher probability that your work is correct.

7. As a final check, you should consider whether, or not, your answer is reasonable.
Does it have the proper order of magnitude?
 NOW: Practice Questions
1) A clock loses 3 s per day. By how many minutes will it be out at the end of one
year (365 days).
2) How many revolutions does the second hand of a clock make in 3 years. (ignore
leap years in the period and remember that the clock has three hands: second
hand, minute hand and hour hand)
3) Calculate the volume of a rectangular board with height 6.5 cm, width 31.4 cm,
and length 115 cm.
4) Calculate the volume of a rectangular cereal box of height 23.5 cm, width 5.5 cm
and length 16.7 cm.
5) If you measure the sides of a square to be 10 cm with an accuracy of ±1%, what
is the area of the square and how many significant figures may you give in your
answer?
6) Find the number of seconds in a year and express your answer to two
significant places using scientific notation.
7) A rectangular file cabinet has a height of 133 cm a width of 37.5 cm and a
length of 72 cm. Express its volume in scientific notation.
 Practice questions
8) Find the price of twelve million sheets of paper that cost 0.18
pence each. Use scientific notation for your calculation.
9) A sheet of paper is 8 × 10−3 cm thick. How many sheets are
in a stack of paper 4 cm high?
What did we learn today?
• Measurement of Time
• Measurement, Calculations, & Uncertainties
• Estimates & Order-of-Magnitude Calculations
• Units and Standards
• Units’ Conversions
• Problem Solving