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Influence of Recipe Factors on the Structure and Properties of Non-

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 applied
sciences
Article
Influence of Recipe Factors on the Structure and Properties of
Non-Autoclaved Aerated Concrete of Increased Strength
Sergey A. Stel’makh 1 , Evgenii M. Shcherban’ 1 , Alexey N. Beskopylny 2, * , Levon R. Mailyan 3 ,
Besarion Meskhi 4 , Nikita Beskopylny 5 , Natal’ya Dotsenko 6 and Maria Kotenko 6
Citation: Stel’makh, S.A.; Shcherban’,
E.M.; Beskopylny, A.N.; Mailyan,
L.R.; Meskhi, B.; Beskopylny, N.;
Dotsenko, N.; Kotenko, M. Influence
of Recipe Factors on the Structure
and Properties of Non-Autoclaved
Aerated Concrete of Increased
Strength. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app12146984
Academic Editor: Panagiotis G.
Asteris
Received: 1 July 2022
Accepted: 8 July 2022
Published: 10 July 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12146984
1 Department of Engineering Geology, Bases and Foundations, Don State Technical University,
344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; sergej.stelmax@mail.ru (S.A.S.); au-geen@mail.ru (E.M.S.)
2 Department of Transport Systems, Faculty of Roads and Transport Systems, Don State Technical University,
344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia
3 Department of Roads, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; lrm@aaanet.ru
4 Department of Life Safety and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Life Safety and Environmental
Engineering, Don State Technical University, 344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; spu-02@donstu.ru
5 Department Hardware and Software Engineering, Don State Technical University,
344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; beskna@yandex.ru
6 Department of Unique Buildings and Constructions Engineering, Don State Technical University,
344003 Rostov-on-Don, Russia; natalya_1998_dotsenko@mail.ru (N.D.);
maria.kotencko2016@yandex.ru (M.K.)
* Correspondence: besk-an@yandex.ru; Tel.: +7-8632738454
Abstract: At present, the load-bearing enclosing structures of buildings and structures are designed
and built considering the increasing requirements for energy efficiency and energy saving of such
structures. This is due to the need for a thrifty attitude to the energy consumed and the need to strive
for the greening of construction and increase the energy efficiency of buildings and structures. In
this regard, one of the most effective and proven building materials is cellular concrete. The purpose
of this study was to study the influence of some prescription factors on the structure formation and
properties of non-autoclaved aerated concrete with improved characteristics. Standard test methods
were used, as well as SEM analysis of the structure of aerated concrete. Non-autoclaved aerated
concrete with the replacement of part of the cement with microsilica in an amount from 4% to 16%
MS showed higher strength characteristics compared to aerated concrete, where part of the cement
was replaced by the addition of granulated blast-furnace slag and a complex additive. The maximum
value of compressive strength was recorded for aerated concrete with 16% MS addition. The largest
increase in the coefficients of constructive quality was observed in compositions of aerated concrete
with the addition of silica fume from 11% to 46% compared with the control composition. The
addition of microsilica makes it possible to achieve an improvement in the thermal conductivity
characteristics of non-autoclaved aerated concrete (up to 10%). Replacing part of the cement with
slag and complex additives does not have a significant effect on thermal conductivity. The obtained
dependencies were confirmed by the analysis of the structure formation of the studied aerated
concrete at the micro level. An improvement in the microstructure of aerated concrete with the
addition of microsilica in comparison with samples of the control composition has been proven.
Keywords: aerated concrete; compressive strength; thermal conductivity; microsilica; granulated
blast furnace slag
1. Introduction
At present, the load-bearing enclosing structures of buildings and structures are
designed and built considering the increasing requirements for energy efficiency and
energy saving of such structures. This is due to the need for a thrifty attitude to the energy
consumed and the need to strive for the greening of construction and increase the energy
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 2 of 21

efficiency of buildings and structures. In this regard, one of the most effective and proven
building materials is cellular concrete. In turn, cellular concrete is classified according to
various criteria and can be of various types, the main ones of which are foam concrete and
aerated concrete.
These concretes differ from each other in the way of pore formation. At the same
time, if foam concrete has a simple manufacturing technology, but other things being equal,
somewhat worse characteristics, then aerated concrete has several advantages in terms
of physical, mechanical, and other operational characteristics, but the technology for its
production is much more complicated. In particular, not only the technological process of
obtaining aerated concrete is complex, but also the technological line itself, which often
consists of more expensive equipment. In this regard, the most high-quality, but at the same
time the most expensive, type of cellular concrete is the so-called gas silicate or autoclaved
aerated concrete [1–17].
In the production of this concrete, special equipment is used—autoclaves—which
make it possible to create hardening conditions for concrete in an environment of saturated
steam under pressure. Therefore, “from the point of view of building science and engi-
neering”, non-autoclaved aerated concrete seems to be the most interesting and promising
material among clean concrete [18–21], and one of the main directions in building materials
science is the search for ways to approximate the characteristics of non-autoclaved aerated
concrete to the characteristics of its autoclaved analogue.
Due to its energy-saving properties, aerated concrete has found wide application as
partition walls and load-bearing walls [20,22,23].
Aerated concrete is a relatively homogeneous material in its “structure compared
to conventional heavy concrete, which contains a significant amount of coarse-grained
aggregate phase”. If the heavy concrete characteristics depend directly on coarse and fine
aggregates, then the “properties of aerated concrete mainly depend on the composition
and microstructure” [24].
Its properties depend on the parameters of the microstructure of aerated concrete. In
general, the structure of aerated concrete is characterized by its solid microporous matrix
and macropores. The reason for the formation of macropores is an increase in volume due
to the effect of aeration; micropores are located in the walls between macropores [25–28].
For example, the porosity of aerated concrete averages 70–80%, and about 45–55% of this
porosity is the porosity caused by the chemical reaction of aluminum powder in an alkali
solution [29,30]. The “porous microstructure of the concrete matrix is mainly represented
by a weakly crystallized C–S–H phase and tobermorite 1.1 nm in size” [31,32].
In industrial practice, the most common blowing agent in the production of aerated
concrete is aluminum powder. This type of blowing agent makes it possible to obtain pores
of various shapes and sizes in aerated concrete. In some studies, instead of aluminum
powder, industrial waste was used as a gas-forming additive [33,34], which is aluminum
waste or bottom ash from the combustion of municipal solid waste.
Moreover, today, the use of agricultural waste and waste from the fuel and en-
ergy complex in the technology of both heavy concrete and cellular concrete is quite
popular [31,35–56]. Table 1 presents a detailed analysis of waste types and their influence
on the characteristics of the resulting cellular concrete.
After the literature review, a lack of studies of structure formation and characteristics
of non-autoclaved aerated concrete, products, and structures made of them was revealed.
In this regard, the purpose of our article was to study the influence of several compo-
sition factors on the structure formation and properties of non-autoclaved aerated concrete
with improved characteristics.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 3 of 21

Table 1. Overview of the use of various types of waste in the technology of cellular concrete.

Influence of Applied Waste on the Characteristics of

Reference Number Waste Type Purpose
Cellular Concrete
The use of graphite slag instead of a part of the binder
As a binder
[35] Graphite slag makes it possible to obtain aerated concrete without loss
replacement
of strength characteristics.
The addition of rice husk ash (RHA) leads to an increase
As a binder
[36,39,42] Rice husk ash in water demand, which negatively affects the strength of
replacement
aerated concrete.
The compressive strength decreases as the percentage of
additive content increases. The optimal value of the
Copper tailings, blast As a binder
[37] additive content, which provides the best values for the
furnace slag replacement
strength and durability of aerated concrete, is its dosage of
5–10%.
Copper tailings and blast-furnace slag can be used as a
substitute for lime to produce aerated concrete products
by obtaining compositions of CaO and MgO. For example,
As a binder
[38] Iron tails a raw material composition of 30% copper tailings, 35%
replacement
blast-furnace slag, 10% cement and 5% gypsum makes it
possible to obtain aerated concrete with a compressive
strength of 4 MPa.
In general, an increase in the mass ratio of this additive
instead of a part of cement adversely affects the strength
As a replacement for
[40] Foundry sand characteristics, however, tailings of a certain size up to 80
fine aggregate
microns at a dosage of 27–34% make it possible to obtain
aerated concrete with the appropriate characteristics.
Replacing ordinary sand with molding sand in an amount
Flue gas cleaning As a binder of 20% is the most optimal and provides an increase in
[31]
waste replacement compressive strength up to 20%, tensile strength in
bending up to 14%.
The addition of flue gas cleaning waste to replace part of
the lime provides an increase in the strength
Recycled AAC As a replacement for
[41] characteristics of aerated concrete. Furthermore, the
Powder fine aggregate
addition of waste leads to the formation of densely
packed lamellar tobermorite crystals with a size of 1.1 nm.
The use of finely dispersed powder from recycled
autoclaved aerated concrete contributes to an increase in
Quarry dust, lime fly As a binder
[43] compressive strength up to 16%. So, the most optimal
ash replacement
dosage of this type of waste instead of part of the sand is
its addition in the amount of 30%.
Microsilica, The addition of fly ash and “quarry dust has a significant
As a binder
[18,48] blast-furnace slag, effect on the density of hardened aerated
replacement
metakaolin concrete samples”.
The addition of microsilica (MS) is the most effective and
provides the greatest increase in strength characteristics in
Microsilica, rice As a replacement for comparison with samples of aerated concrete, where slag
[48]
husk ash fine aggregate (GBFS) and metakaolin (MK) were used as a binder
replacement. At the same time, the GBFS additive proved
to be more effective than MK.
Aerated concrete with 2.5% RHA and 7.5% MS shows the
As a replacement for
[44] Granite dust highest mechanical properties compared to samples
fine aggregate
containing quartz sand.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 4 of 21

Table 1. Cont.

Influence of Applied Waste on the Characteristics of

Reference Number Waste Type Purpose
Cellular Concrete
The addition of granite dust particles increases the
compressive strength and density of the hardened aerated
As a replacement for concrete and reduces water absorption and porosity. The
[45] Perlite waste
fine aggregate maximum increase in compressive strength was observed
at the level of 42% for a mixture containing 20%
replacement of fine aggregates with granite dust.
The results of the study show that the use of expanded
Residues from
perlite waste in aerated concrete leads to a decrease in its
oil-based drilling As a binder
[46] density, and the thermal conductivity and compressive
cuttings pyrolysis, replacement
strength of the samples decrease as the percentage of
fly ash
expanded perlite in aerated concrete increases.

The objectives of the study were:

- analysis and review of literature concerning the issues of improving the quality of
cellular concrete and ways to control its properties and structure formation due to
prescription and technological factors;
- after a detailed analysis, the next task was drawing up a program of experimental
studies, preparing and planning the experiment, and processing data;
- at the end of the experimental and research part, the development of analytical
conclusions with the formulation of new provisions in the development of the theory
of hardening, structure formation, and the formation of properties of non-autoclaved
cellular concrete with improved structure and characteristics.
The scientific novelty of this research is the developed theoretical concepts of structure
formation at the micro level and the influence of microstructure on the formation of the
properties of non-autoclaved aerated concrete with improved characteristics based on
nano-modifiers of various origins. The dependence of the processes of structure formation
at the microlevel and the properties of non-autoclaved aerated concrete with improved
characteristics on prescription factors has been established. In particular, such prescription
factors were the nanomodification of aerated concrete in a qualitative aspect and the
established rational dosage of such nanomodifiers in a quantitative aspect.
The practical significance of the study is the improvement of building enclosing
structures made of cellular concrete with improved characteristics, which in turn will lead
to an increase in the energy efficiency of buildings and structures for various purposes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
In this work, the following raw materials were used for the manufacture of non-
autoclaved aerated concrete: Portland cement grade CEM I 42.5 N produced by JSC
Novoroscement (Novorossiysk, Russia); river sand, alluvial sand from the Aksai quarry
(Aksai, Russia); ground blast-furnace slag (GBFS) produced by NLMK JSC (Lipetsk, Russia);
MK-85 microsilica (MS) produced by NPP ZIPO (Lipetsk, Russia); PAP-1 aluminum powder
produced by SKIF LLC (St. Petersburg, Russia); molding gypsum G-6 B III produced by
Magma LLC (Moscow, Russia); and lump quicklime produced by Roskhimprom LLC
(Rostov-on-Don, Russia). Characteristics of raw materials are shown in Tables 2–7.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 5 of 21

Table 2. Physical and mechanical characteristics and mineralogical composition of cement.

Property Value
Physical and mechanical characteristics
Specific surface, cm2 /g 3548
Normal density, % 26.5
Density, kg/m3 3165
Setting time, hour:min
-start 2:10
-the end 3:25
Compressive strength at the age of 28 days, MPa 58.7
Mineralogical composition
C3 S 68
C2 S 13
C3 A 7
C4 AF 12

Table 3. Physical characteristics of sand.

Property Value
Size modulus 1.39
Content of dust and clay particles, % 0.47
True grain density, kg/m3 2697
Bulk density, kg/m3 1438
Voidness of sand, % 45

Table 4. Chemical composition of GBFS [52] and MS.

Content, wt. %
Substance
GBFS MS
SiO2 26.56 80.8
CaO 56.35 1.5
MgO 6.42 0.3
Al2 O3 5.92 2.3
Na2 O 1.07
K2 O 0.29
TiO2 2.37
MnO 0.18
S 0.32
Fe2 O3 0.33 3.1
SrO 0.14
P2 O 5 <0.01
ZrO2 0.03
Co3 O4 , V2 O5 , Cr2 O3 , Nd2 O3 , WO3 , Ta2 O5 , Nb2 O5 , Sc2 O3 ,
<0.01
Y2 O3 , BaO, CuO
R2 O 0.7
SO3 2.4
LOI 8.9
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 6 of 21

Table 5. Characteristics of aluminum powder PAP-1.

Property Value
Easy-to-smear, silver-gray product. Aluminum
Appearance particles in the powder are plate-shaped and
covered with a thin oxide and fatty film.
Average particle thickness, µm 0.25–0.50
Average linear size of particles, microns 20–30
Bulk density of powder, g/cm3 0.23
Content of active aluminum, % 92

Table 6. Characteristics of gypsum G-6 B III.

Property Value
Bulk density, kg/m3 658
gypsum mortar pH 7
Water absorption, % 38
Fineness of grinding, residue on a sieve with a mesh size of 0.2 mm, % 0.9
Setting time, min
Start 7
the end 18

Table 7. Characteristics of lime.

Property Value
Content of active CaO and MgO, % 88.5
The content of unquenched grains, % 11
Extinguishing speed, min 20
Hydration water content, % 3

2.2. Methods
The aerated concrete was prepared in the following sequence: cement, sand, lime,
gypsum, and additives were mixed in full in a dry state for 30 s, then 50% of the water
necessary for mixing was introduced into the resulting homogeneous mixture of dry
components and mixed for 1.5 min, then aluminum powder was introduced into the
resulting mixture along with the rest of the mixing water. The resulting mixture was kept
at rest for 1 min. After holding the aerated concrete mixture, its mixing continued for 2 min
until a homogeneous mixture without lumps was obtained.
The samples were cast in one layer and compacted manually using a steel rod. The
crust (surplus) was removed after 4 h of exposure with a scraper. Next, the samples were
wrapped in a film and kept indoors at a temperature of 24 ± 2 ◦ C for 24 h. After holding
for a day, the samples were removed from the formwork and placed in a normal hardening
chamber, in which they were kept for 27 days.
To determine the proportions of the mixture that will provide the best “physical
and mechanical properties of non-autoclaved aerated concrete, with partial replacement
of part of the cement with ground blast furnace slag (GBFS)” and microsilica (MS), the
following replacement levels were chosen: 4%, 8%, 12%, 16%, and 20% of these mineral
components by weight of cement. All samples were prepared at a ratio of water and binder
component W/B = 0.5, lime was introduced in an amount of 10%, gypsum in an amount of
5%, and aluminum powder in an amount of 1% by weight of the binder. Table 8 shows the
formulation of the experimental compositions.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 7 of 21

Table 8. Proportions of experimental compositions of mixtures.

The Content of Microsilica, Introduced Content of Ground Blast-Furnace Slag

Composition Number
Instead of Part of the Cement, % Introduced Instead of Part of Cement, %
C 0 0
1A 4 0
2A 8 0
3A 12 0
4A 16 0
5A 20 0
1B 0 4
2B 0 8
3B 0 12
4B 0 16
5B 0 20
1AB 2 2
2AB 4 4
3AB 6 6
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x4AB
FOR PEER REVIEW 8 8 7 of 23
5AB 10 10

AAtotal
totalofof9696sample cubes
sample were
cubes made
were forfor
made testing thethe
testing average density
average andand
density compressive
compres-
strength and 80 sample plates for testing the thermal conductivity (Figure 1).
sive strength and 80 sample plates for testing the thermal conductivity (Figure 1).

Figure1.1.Experimental
Figure Experimentalresearch
researchprogram.
program.

Theaverage
The averagedensity
density
of of
thethe manufactured
manufactured samples
samples of non-autoclaved
of non-autoclaved aerated
aerated con-
concrete
crete
was was determined
determined according according to GOST
to GOST 12730.1 12730.1 “Concretes.
“Concretes. Methods
Methods of determination
of determination of
density”. TheThe
of density”. samples
samples were dried
were to to
dried constant
constant weight
weight forfor
2424hhinina alaboratory
laboratoryoven
ovenatataa
temperature 110±±55◦°C.
temperatureofof110 C. The
Theweight
weightofofthe
thesamples
sampleswas wasdetermined
determinedby byweighing
weighingwith
with
an
anerror
errorofofno
nomore
morethan than0.1%.
0.1%.The
Thedensity
densityofofsamples
samplesofofnon-autoclaved
non-autoclavedaerated
aeratedconcrete
concrete
sample
sampleρw, kg/m3 3, ,was
ρw,kg/m wascalculated
calculatedwith
withan anerror
errorofofup kg/m33 according
uptoto1 1kg/m accordingto tothe
theformula:
formula:
m
=w = ·m1000,
ρw ρ ⋅ 1000, (1)
(1)
VV
3
wheremmisisthe
where themass
massofofthe sample,g;g;VVisisthe
thesample, thesample
samplevolume,
volume,cm cm.3.
The
Thecompressive
compressivestrength
strengthwas
wasdetermined
determinedaccording
according to toGOST
GOST1018010180 “Concretes.
“Concretes.
Methods for strength determination using reference
Methods for strength determination using reference specimens”. specimens”.
After
Afterinstalling
installing the
the prototype
prototype onon the
thesupport
supportplates
platesofof
thethe press,
press, its its
upperupper plate
plate was
was combined
combined withwith
the the
faceface of the
of the prototype,
prototype, suchsuch
thatthat their
their planes
planes completely
completely adjoined
adjoined one
one to the
to the other.
other. TheThe prototype
prototype “was“was loaded
loaded to failure
to failure at a constant
at a constant load load rate increase
rate increase (0.6 ±
0.2)±MPa/s”
(0.6 0.2) MPa/s”
(Figure(Figure
2). 2).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 8 of 21

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Aerated
Aerated concrete
concrete sample:
sample: (a)
(a) before
before compression
compression test;
test; (b)
(b) after
after compression test.
compression test.

The value
value of
ofthe
thecoefficient
coefficientofofconstructive
constructive quality
quality (CCQ)
(CCQ) waswas determined
determined byformula:
by the the for-
mula:
R
CCQ Rb = Rb , (2)
CCQ = ρ b , (2)
Rb
ρ
where Rb is “the compressive strength, MPa; ρ is the density of concrete”, g/cm3 .
where Rb thermal
The is “the compressive
conductivitystrength,
of samplesMPa;of ρnon-autoclaved
is the density ofaerated
concrete”, g/cm3was
concrete . deter-
The thermal conductivity of samples of non-autoclaved aerated
mined on the device ITP-MG4 LLC SKB Stroypribor (Chelyabinsk, Russia) in accordance concrete was deter-
mined
with the onrequirements
the device ITP-MG4
of GOSTLLC 7076SKB Stroypribor
“Building (Chelyabinsk,
materials and products.Russia) in accordance
Method of deter-
with
mination of steady-state thermal conductivity and thermal resistance” on sample deter-
the requirements of GOST 7076 “Building materials and products. Method of plates
mination
100 × 100of × steady-state
20 mm in size thermal conductivity
[57]. “The principle ofand thermalof
operation resistance”
the deviceon sample
is based onplates
creat-
100
ing ×a 100 × 20 mm
stationary in size
heat flux[57]. “Thethrough
passing principle of operation
a flat sample ofofa the device
certain is basedand
thickness on creating
directed
aperpendicular
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWstationary heat fluxfront
to the passing
facesthrough a flat sample
of the sample, of a the
measuring certain thickness
sample and heat
thickness, directed
9 flux
of 23
perpendicular to the frontoffaces
density and temperature of thefront
opposite sample,
faces”measuring the sample thickness, heat flux
(Figure 3).
density and temperature of opposite front faces” (Figure 3).
The structure of aerated concrete samples was studied using a scanning electron mi-
croscope “ZEISS CrossBeam 340 double-beam scanning electron/ion microscope
equipped with an Oxford Instruments X-Max 80 X-ray microanalyzer Carl Zeiss Micros-
copy GmbH (Factory), (Jena, Germany)” [52–55].

Figure3.3.Measurement
Figure Measurementof
ofthermal
thermalconductivity
conductivityof
ofaerated
aeratedconcrete
concretesamples.
samples.

Thestructure
The study also
ofused:
aerated concrete samples was studied using a scanning electron mi-
croscope
- “ZEISS CrossBeam
technological 340 double-beam
equipment: scanning
laboratory drying electron/ion
oven ShS-80-01 microscope equipped
SPU JSC “Smolensk
SKTB SPU” (Smolensk, Russia);
- testing equipment: hydraulic press IP 6010-100-1 “PKTs ZIM” (Armavir, Russia);
- measuring instruments: metal measuring ruler 500 mm JSC “Stavropol Tool Plant”
(Stavropol, Russia); laboratory scales HT-5000 NPP Gosmetr (St. Petersburg, Russia);
caliper ShTs-I-250-0.05 OOO NPP Chelyabinsk Tool Plant (Chelyabinsk, Russia) [52–
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 9 of 21

with an Oxford Instruments X-Max 80 X-ray microanalyzer Carl Zeiss Microscopy GmbH
(Factory), (Jena, Germany)” [52–55].
The study also used:
- technological equipment: laboratory drying oven ShS-80-01 SPU JSC “Smolensk SKTB
SPU” (Smolensk, Russia);
- testing equipment: hydraulic press IP 6010-100-1 “PKTs ZIM” (Armavir, Russia);
- measuring instruments: metal measuring ruler 500 mm JSC “Stavropol Tool Plant”
(Stavropol, Russia); laboratory scales HT-5000 NPP Gosmetr (St. Petersburg, Russia);
caliper ShTs-I-250-0.05 OOO NPP Chelyabinsk Tool Plant (Chelyabinsk, Russia) [52–59].
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24
3. Results
3.1. Density
The results of determining the density of experimental samples of non-autoclaved
aerated concrete are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4.
Figure Statisticaldensity
4. Statistical density values
values of
of non-autoclaved
non-autoclaved aerated
aerated concrete.
concrete.

Average density
density values
values for
for non-autoclaved 3
Average non-autoclaved aerated
aerated concrete
concrete range
range from
from 1770
1770 kg/m
kg/m3
to 1782
1782 kg/m 3
to kg/m3. .As
Ascan
can be
be seen
seen from
from Figure
Figure4,4,there
thereare
arenonosignificant changes
significant in density
changes for
in density
samples of non-autoclaved aerated concrete.
for samples of non-autoclaved aerated concrete.
3.2. Compressive Strength
3.2. Compressive Strength
The results of determining the compressive strength of experimental samples of non-
The results of determining the compressive strength of experimental samples of non-
autoclaved aerated concrete are shown in Figure 5.
autoclaved aerated concrete are shown in Figure 5.
The maximum compressive strength was recorded for prototypes of non-autoclaved
aerated concrete of type 4A composition, where part of the cement 16% MS was replaced,
and amounted to 13.2 MPa. The minimum value of compressive strength was recorded for
samples of composition type 5B, where part of the cement was replaced with 20% GBFS and
amounted to 5.5 MPa. In general, the compressive strength values of type A compounds
are higher than those of type B and AB compounds (Table 9).
The dependences of the change in the compressive strength of compositions of types
A, B, and AB are shown in Figure 6.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 10 of 21

Table 9. Experimental values of compressive strength of non-autoclaved aerated concrete.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23
Composition
C 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 1B 2B 3B 4B 5B 1AB 2AB 3AB 4AB 5AB
number
Compressive
9.0 10.1 11.4 12.1 13.2 10.0 8.5 8.4 7.2 6.3 5.5 9.1 8.5 7.4 7.2 6.7
strength, MPa

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23

Figure 5.
Figure Statistical values
5. Statistical values of
of compressive
compressive strength
strength of
of non-autoclaved
non-autoclaved aerated
aerated concrete.
concrete.

The maximum compressive strength was recorded for prototypes of non-autoclaved

aerated concrete of type 4A composition, where part of the cement 16% MS was replaced,
and amounted to 13.2 MPa. The minimum value of compressive strength was recorded
for samples of composition type 5B, where part of the cement was replaced with 20%
GBFS and amounted to 5.5 MPa. In general, the compressive strength values of type A
compounds are higher than those of type B and AB compounds (Table 9).

Table 9. Experimental values of compressive strength of non-autoclaved aerated concrete.

Composition
C 1А 2А 3А 4А 5А 1B 2B 3B 4B 5B 1AB 2AB 3AB 4AB 5AB
number
Compressive
9.0 10.1 11.4 12.1 13.2 10.0 8.5 8.4 7.2 6.3 5.5 9.1 8.5 7.4 7.2 6.7
strength, MPa

The dependences of the change in the compressive strength of compositions of types

A, B, and AB are shown in Figure 6.

Figure6.6. Change
Figure Change in
in compressive
compressivestrength
strengthofof
non-autoclaved aerated
non-autoclaved concrete
aerated samples
concrete depending
samples depending on
on the percentage of binder replacement by various types of additives.
the percentage of binder replacement by various types of additives.
Figure 6 shows that the addition of microsilica has the most positive effect on the
compressive strength of non-autoclaved aerated concrete. Statistical processing of the ob-
tained experimental data made it possible to determine regression curves describing the
effect of additives x on compressive strength Rb .

2 3 2
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 11 of 21

Figure 6 shows that the addition of microsilica has the most positive effect on the
compressive strength of non-autoclaved aerated concrete. Statistical processing of the
obtained experimental data made it possible to determine regression curves describing the
effect of additives x on compressive strength Rb .

RbMS = 9.11 − 0.0135 × x +0.0597 × x2 − 0.00282 × x3 , R2 = 0.936 (3)

Rb GBFS = 9.01 − 0.0758 × x − 0.00525 × x2 , R2 = 0.98 (4)

2 2
Rb MS+GBFS = 9.21 − 0.0995 × x − 0.00156 × x , R = 0.93 (5)
The significance of the regression coefficients was tested using Fisher’s and Student’s
tests. In the above equations, all coefficients are significant. The coefficient of determination
is quite high from 0.93 to 0.98. It can also be seen that if the additive x is equal to zero, the
value of the compression strength is approximately the same with an error of ±5%.
Therefore, the MS additive, introduced instead of part of the cement in an amount
of 4%, provides an increase in strength by 12% compared to the control composition, and
replacing part of the cement with an MS additive in an amount of 8%, 12%, 16%, and 20%
provides an increase in strength by 27%, 35%, 47%, and 11% respectively. The decrease in
strength gained when replacing cement with 20% MS indicates that a further increase will
lead to a loss in strength.
This increase in the strength of non-autoclaved aerated concrete when replacing part
of the MS cement in an amount of 4–16% can be explained by the fact that the addition of
MS, due to its pozzolanic activity, provides the formation of additional C-S-H and creates
the effect of a denser packing of particles [43,60].
Replacing part of the cement with the addition of ground blast-furnace slag leads
to a decrease in the strength of non-autoclaved aerated concrete in comparison with the
strength value of the control composition. Thus, when replacing part of the cement with 4%
GBFS, the compressive strength decreases by 5%, with the amount of GBFS 8%, the strength
decreases by 6%, with the amount of GBFS 12%, the strength decreases by 19%, and the
replacement of cement with GBFS in the amount of 16% and 20% leads to a reduction
in compressive strength of up to 29% and 39%, respectively. First, the drop in strength
characteristics is due to the fact that when using GBFS in concrete, it reduces “the degree of
hydration of the cement due to the lack of cement gel”.
As for the use of the complex additive MS + GBFS (1:1) as a replacement for part of the
cement, it also, as in the case of GBFS, leads to a loss in compressive strength; however, the
percentage of strength reduction is noticeably less. In the case of using MS + GBFS (1:1) in
an amount of 4%, a slight increase in strength is observed in an amount of 2%. In the case
of replacements of 8%, 12%, 16%, and 20% by weight of cement, the drop in compressive
strength was 6%, 17%, 20%, and 25%, respectively.

3.3. Coefficient of Construction Quality

The values of the calculated coefficients of structural quality of non-autoclaved aerated
concrete are presented in Table 10.
The dependences of the change in the coefficients of structural quality of compositions
of types A, B, and AB are shown in Figure 7.
The dependences of the change in the coefficients of constructive quality for non-
autoclaved aerated concrete with additives MS and GBFS and with the complex additive
MS:GBFS have a similar character as the dependence of the change in compressive strength
of compositions of types A, B, and AB.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 12 of 21

Table 10. Experimental values of the coefficients of structural quality of non-autoclaved aerated concrete.

Composition Number CCQ, MPa × cm3 /g

C 5.06
1A 5.69
2A 6.41
3A 6.80
4A 7.39
5A 5.62
1B 4.80
2B 4.72
3B 4.08
4B 3.56
5B 3.07
1AB 5.14
2AB 4.77
3AB 4.19
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4AB 4.03 14 of 23
5AB 3.79

Figure
Figure 7. 7. Change
Change in in
thethe coefficient
coefficient of of structural
structural quality
quality of non-autoclaved
of non-autoclaved aerated
aerated concrete
concrete depend-
depending
ing on the percentage of binder replacement by various types of additives.
on the percentage of binder replacement by various types of additives.

The
The dependences
regression of thefor
equations change in thequality
the design coefficients
factorsofare
constructive quality for
given in Equations non-
(6)–(8).
autoclaved
The coefficientaerated concrete with
of determination additives
is also MS and
quite high fromGBFS
0.93 and with the complex additive
to 0.986.
MS:GBFS have a similar character as the dependence of the change in compressive
CCQ
strength of MS = 5.12 + 0.000618
compositions of types×A,x +B,0.0323 × x2 − 0.00154 × x3 , R2 = 0.938
and AB. (6)
The regression equations for the design quality factors are given in Equations (6)–(8).
The coefficientCCQ GBFS = 5.18 − is
of determination 0.0563 × x −high
also quite 0.000848 × x2to
from 0.93 R2 = 0.93
, 0.986. (7)
CCQ MS+GBFS = 5.06 − 0.0373 × x − 0.00325 × x2 , R2 = 0.986 (8)
CCQMS = 5.12 + 0.000618 × x + 0.0323 × x2 − 0.00154 × x3 , R2 = 0.938 (6)

CCQGBFS = 5.18 − 0.0563 × x − 0.000848 × x2 , R2 = 0.93 (7)

CCQMS+GBFS = 5.06 − 0.0373 × x - 0.00325 × x2 , R2 = 0.986 (8)

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 13 of 21

Changes in the coefficients of structural quality of non-autoclaved aerated concrete as

a percentage are presented in Table 11.

Table 11. Change in the coefficients of structural quality of non-autoclaved aerated concrete depend-
ing on the type of additive and its dosage.

Change in % (∆) of the Coefficient of Constructive Quality at the Following

Additive Dosages of Additives (%) Introduced instead of Part of the Binder
Type
0 4 8 12 16 20
MS 0 +12 +27 +34 +46 +11
GBFS 0 −5 −7 −19 −30 −39
MS:GBFS 0 +2 −6 −17 −20 −25

Figure 7 and Table 11 show that the best ratio between strength and density was
demonstrated by aerated concrete samples with the addition of MS as a replacement for
cement in the amount of 16%. The addition of GBFS had a negative effect on the ratio
between strength and density of aerated concrete, i.e., reduced CCQ. While the complex
additive MS:GBFS in the amount of 4%:4% and 8%:8% has characteristics similar to the
control composition.

3.4. Thermal Conductivity

The results of determining the thermal conductivity of samples of non-autoclaved
aerated concrete are presented in Table 12.

Table 12. Results of determining the thermal conductivity of samples of non-autoclaved aerated concrete.

Composition Number Dry Thermal Conductivity λ, W/(m·◦ C)

C 0.365
1A 0.359
2A 0.341
3A 0.332
4A 0.330
5A 0.340
1B 0.367
2B 0.369
3B 0.374
4B 0.378
5B 0.382
1AB 0.368
2AB 0.371
3AB 0.372
4AB 0.380
5AB 0.383

The dependences of the change in the thermal conductivity coefficients of compositions

of type A, B, and AB are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 shows that the best values of thermal conductivity coefficients are observed
in compositions of type A.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2022,
2022,12,
12,6984
x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 ofof2123
14

Figure8.8.Change
Figure Changeininthe
thethermal
thermalconductivity
conductivityofofnon-autoclaved
non-autoclavedaerated
aeratedconcrete
concretedepending
dependingon
onthe
the
percentageofofbinder
percentage binderreplacement
replacementbybyvarious
various types
types ofof additives.
additives.

Figure 8 shows
Regression thatfor
equations thethermal
best values of thermal
conductivity conductivity
coefficients coefficients
are given are observed
in Equations (9)–(11).
in compositions
The of type A.
coefficient of determination is also quite high from 0.96 to 0.99.
Regression equations for thermal conductivity coefficients are given in Equations (9)–
MS =
(11). λThe 0.365 − of
coefficient 0.00118 × x − 0.000334
determination × x2 +high
is also quite × 10−0.96
1.65 from 5
× xto3 ,0.99.R2 = 0.987 (9)
2 −5 × x 2 , −5 R2 3= 0.992
λMSλGBFS − 0.00118
= 0.365
= 0.365 × x −×0.000334
+ 0.000477 × x10
x +2.00 × + 1.65 × 10 × x , R = 0.987 (10)
(9)
λ MS+GBFS = 0.365 + 0.000460 × x +2.23 × 10−−55 × x22 , R 2
= 0.96 (11)
λGBFS = 0.365 + 0.000477 × x + 2.00 × 10 × x , 2
R = 0.99 (10)
Replacing cement with an MS additive in an amount of 16% provides the maximum
λMS+GBFS
reduction in thermal conductivity
= 0.365 + to 10%. Thus,
0.000460 × x + in
2.23 × 10−13,
Table 5 the
× x2 , values
R2 of changes in the
= 0.96 (11)
thermal conductivity coefficients of the experimental compositions are given in percentage
terms Replacing
dependingcement
on the type
with and dosage
an MS of the
additive in additive.
an amount of 16% provides the maximum
reduction in thermal conductivity to 10%. Thus, in Table 13, the values of changes in the
Table 13. Change
thermal in the thermal
conductivity conductivity
coefficients of thecoefficients
experimentalof non-autoclaved
compositions aerated concrete
are given in depend-
percent-
ing onterms
age the type of additiveon
depending and
theitstype
dosage.
and dosage of the additive.

Table Change
13. Change in theinthermal
% (∆) of the Coefficient
conductivity of Thermal
coefficients Conductivity ataerated
of non-autoclaved the Following
concrete de-
Additive Dosages of Additives (%) Introduced instead of Part of the Binder
pending
Type on the type of additive and its dosage.
0 4 8 12 16 20
Change in % (∆) of the Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity at the Following Dosages of
MS 0 −2 −7 −9 −10 −7
Additive Type GBFS Additives
0 (%) Introduced
+1 instead
+1 of Part+2
of the Binder +4 +5
0MS:GBFS 40 +18 +212 +2 16 +4 20+5
MS 0 −2 −7 −9 −10 −7
GBFS 0 Table 13 shows
+1 that the most +1 significant
+2 influence on+4the change in the+5thermal
MS:GBFS 0 +1 +2 +2 of silica fume
conductivity coefficient is exerted by the addition +4 at its content in +5
the range
from 8% to 20%. The addition of ground blast-furnace slag and the MS:GBFS complex
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 15 of 21

additive do not have a significant effect on the thermal conductivity coefficient and, in
percentage terms, have almost the same degree of influence on the change in this indicator.

3.5. Microstructural Analysis

To
better understand the microstructural behavior of the AAC samples, SEM tests
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 24
were performed on the NAC sample of the control composition and the AAC type 4A
sample with the best compressive strength, structural quality factor, and the lowest thermal
conductivity value (Figure 9).

(a)

(b)

Figure 9. Cont.
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 16 of 21

(b)

(с)

(d)

Figure Figure
9. SEM 9.
ofSEM of non-autoclaved
non-autoclaved aeratedaerated
concreteconcrete samples:
samples: (a) control
(a) control composition
composition at 300×atmagni-
300× magni-
fication; (b) control formulation at 2000× magnification; (c) with the addition of microsilica in the
fication; (b) control formulation at 2000× magnification; (c) with the addition of microsilica in the
amount of 16% with a 100-fold increase; (d) with the addition of microsilica in the amount of 16%
amount of 16% with a 100-fold increase; (d) with the addition of microsilica in the amount of 16%
with a 1000-fold increase.
with a 1000-fold increase.
As a rule, the microstructure of aerated concrete directly depends on the type and
As a rule, the microstructure of aerated concrete directly depends on the type and
number of phases, the rate of hydration, the type of reaction products formed, and their
number of phases, the rate of hydration, the type of reaction products formed, and their
distribution
distribution in the aerated
in the aerated concrete
concrete matrixmatrix [24].
[24]. All Allfeatures
these these features
depend depend primarily
primarily on the on the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 17 of 21

chemical composition of the raw materials used for the manufacture of aerated concrete
mixtures and the hardening mode. Thus, an increase in the compressive strength of
non-autoclaved aerated concrete samples with the addition of microsilica, introduced
instead of part of the cement in an amount of 16%, can be explained by differences in the
microstructure of the matrix due to changes in the morphology of tobermorite (Figure 9).
In samples of the control composition (Figure 9a,b), tobermorite crystals are predom-
inantly acicular in shape. As for the samples of aerated concrete with the addition of
microsilica, here, these crystals mainly have a lamellar shape (Figure 9c,d).
Thus, according to the results of microstructural analysis, it can be concluded that
the microsilica additive, introduced instead of part of the cement, provides a denser
microstructure of non-autoclaved aerated concrete. The presence of a denser and more
compact microstructure of the aerated concrete matrix leads to an increase in strength. This
statement is consistent with some studies [1,2,31], where the formation of C–S–H phases
with different microstructure and morphology was observed, which has a significant effect
on the compressive strength of aerated concrete.

4. Discussion
The theoretical and experimental work carried out requires a detailed analytical
interpretation. Let us divide the analysis of the obtained results into two stages. The
first stage will be a direct comparison of the results obtained and the construction of an
analytical Ishikawa diagram based on the intermediate conclusions made. Let us present
the Ishikawa diagram as a dependence of the quality of the obtained non-autoclaved
aerated concrete on various prescription factors. The Ishikawa diagram is shown below in
Figure 10.
Analyzing Figure 10, we note that the following prescription factors turned out to be
the most important parameters—the type of powdered waste used and its dosage. At the
same time, microsilica waste showed 44% better results than the complex additive and
53% better than the GBFS additive. In this regard, we have established rational recipe
parameters both in qualitative and quantitative terms for non-autoclaved aerated concrete
with improved strength.
Next, we compare our results with the results of other authors. The authors of [40–42]
suggested using prescription factors to improve the physical and mechanical properties
of aerated concrete; the increase in compressive strength ranged from 16% to 22%. In the
present study, the increase in the strength of aerated concrete due to prescription factors in
comparison with the control composition was up to 46%.
Finally, we analyzed not only the qualitative and quantitative patterns of improving
the quality of aerated concrete, but also analyzed the fundamental essence of the process of
structure formation of non-autoclaved aerated concrete, which proved the good compati-
bility of the applied rational component, namely silica fume, for the best microstructure
formation, which was confirmed at the micro level. That is, the particles proposed by
us, which are modifiers of aerated concrete, act as crystallization centers, allowing you to
create a dense packing of particles in interpore partitions, while simultaneously adjusting
the correct rational pore structure and creating concrete not only with improved strength
characteristics, but also with an improved structure.
In this regard, our study is scientifically new and practically significant, and deserves
further development.
 The theoretical and experimental work carried out requires a detailed analytical in-
terpretation. Let us divide the analysis of the obtained results into two stages. The first
stage will be a direct comparison of the results obtained and the construction of an ana-
lytical Ishikawa diagram based on the intermediate conclusions made. Let us present the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 Ishikawa diagram as a dependence of the quality of the obtained non-autoclaved aerated
18 of 21
concrete on various prescription factors. The Ishikawa diagram is shown below in Figure
10.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Factors
Factorsaffecting
affectingthe
theproperties
propertiesof
ofaerated
aeratedconcrete:
concrete:(1–3)—the
(1–3)—themain
maingroups
groupsof
offactors.
factors.

5. Conclusions
Based on the test results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The effect of formulation factors on the structure formation and properties of non-
autoclaved aerated concrete with improved characteristics was studied.
(2) Non-autoclaved aerated concretes with replacement of part of the cement from 4%
to 16% MS showed higher strength characteristics compared to aerated concretes
where part of the cement was replaced with GBFS admixture and MS:GBFS complex
admixture. The maximum value of compressive strength was recorded for aerated
concrete with 16% MS addition.
(3) Gains in design quality factors were observed only for formulations with MS additive,
MS additive contributed to gains in CCQ in the range of 11–46% compared to the
control formulation.
(4) Addition of MS improved the thermal conductivity characteristics of non-autoclaved
aerated concrete (up to 10%). Replacing part of the cement with GBFS and MS:GBFS
additives did not significantly affect the change in thermal conductivity values. In
general, when replacing part of the cement with these additives in the range of 4–20%,
small increases in thermal conductivity coefficients from 1% to 5% were observed
compared to the control composition.
(5) Theoretical ideas about structure formation at the microlevel and the influence of
microstructure on the formation of the properties of non-autoclaved aerated concrete
with improved characteristics based on nanomodifiers of various origins have been
developed. Improvement of the microstructure of aerated concrete with the addition
of MS in comparison with samples of the control composition has been proven.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6984 19 of 21

The practical significance of the study was to improve the building enclosing structures
made of cellular concrete with improved characteristics, which in turn will lead to an
increase in the energy efficiency of buildings and structures for various purposes.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.A.S., E.M.S., A.N.B. and N.D.; methodology, S.A.S.,
E.M.S. and M.K.; software, S.A.S., E.M.S., A.N.B. and N.B.; validation, N.D., S.A.S., E.M.S. and A.N.B.;
formal analysis, N.D., S.A.S. and E.M.S.; investigation, N.B., L.R.M., S.A.S., E.M.S., A.N.B. and B.M.;
resources, B.M.; data curation, S.A.S., E.M.S. and M.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A.S.,
E.M.S. and A.N.B.; writing—review and editing, S.A.S., E.M.S. and A.N.B.; visualization, S.A.S.,
E.M.S., A.N.B. and N.B.; supervision, L.R.M. and B.M.; project administration, L.R.M. and B.M.;
funding acquisition, A.N.B. and B.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The study did not report any data.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the administration of Don State Techni-
cal University for their resources and financial support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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