NATIONAL MISSION ON HIMALAYAN STUDIES Indian Himalayan timberline ecotone in response to climate change — initial findings S. P. Singh’, A. Bhattacharyya’, Amit Mittal’, Aseesh Pandey‘, Ashish Tewari’, Avantika Latwal*, Bency David’, Bhupendra S. Adhikari°, Devendra Kumar’, G. C. S. Negi’, Ishfaq Ahmad Mir’, Krishna Kumar Tamta’, Kumar Sambhav‘, Mayank Shekhar’, Mohit Phulara‘, Munisa Manzoor’, Nandan Singh’, Pankaj Tewari’, Parminder S. Ranhotra’, Pradeep Singh’, Pratap Dhai ’, Rajesh Joshi*, Ranbeer S. Ra Priyanka Sah*, Rahul Kumi Renu Rawal’, Ripu Daman Singh’, Shruti Shah’, Subrat Sharma‘, Subzar Ahmad Nanda’, Surabhi Gumber', Utsa Singh’ and Zafar Reshi” ‘Cet Himalayan Evieameat Association, 6 Waldo! Compou, Malta, Nei 23001, Inia ‘ical Sah lute of Palaconcinces 53, Univety Road, Lacnow 236607, adit. °Depmttetof Frey ad Eiviromentl Sens DSB, Campa, Kimnon Univer, Nai “GiB Pun Natonal litte of Himoloye Exevonnent and Sotamabe Development, Skis Regionl Cone, Pangan. (Gangtok 737101, nin "6-8. Pant National Insti of Hanaleyn Eaionmet an Sstaile Development (OBPNIHESD), Kos: Ketamal, Alnor 263643, ‘Depurimen of Habitat Exology, Wilf Inst of Ini PO, Bos 8, Chant, Dead 480, nds ‘Deparment of Botany, Univer of Kashmir, Srinagar 19006 Inia. ‘This article enumerates the findings of a team re search on the Indian Himalayan timbertine ecotone, with focus on three sites (located in Kashmir, Utta akhand and Sikkim). Timberline elevation increased from west to east, was higher in the warmer south aspect than the cooler north aspect, and was generally depressed, Betula, Abies, Rhododendron aud Juniperus ‘were important treeline genera. The Himalaya has not only the highest treelines Juniperus. tibetica, at 490m), but also the widest elevational range (©1700 m). Remotely sensed data revealed that the Himberline is a long, twisting and turning ecotone, traversing a length of 8-10 km per km horizontal dis. tance. Surface temperature lapse rate in the monsoonal regions was lower (- tion) than gen: bly with season, species are not water regions, predawn tree water potential seldom getting below -1 MPa. The upward advance of Rhododendron campanuletum (a krummbolz. species) may deplete ‘alpine meadows with climatic warming. Tree-ring chronology indicated that winter warming may be Aavouring Abies spectabilis. Early snowmelt increased growth period and species richness. Treelines generally are stable In spite of decades of warming. Dependence fof people ou timberline was still high; so economie interventions are required to reduce the same. ‘Ror crespondece (email wxpe@yoo om) Keywords: Climate change, temperature lapse rte, timberline ecotone and elevation tree water relation, tree= line genera Introduction ‘Uxpex the influence of globe climate change, the Hima- laya is warming at a higher rate than the global average rate! The rapid glacicr melt is its major consequence, and a component of monitoring and research. At the lower fede of snovields, there occurs the upper elevation lim- its of forests called tinterlines, which too are highly sex- sitive to climatic warming, but somehow are among the least studied in the Himalaya, In contrast, timberlines and twelins ae among the mos intensively stadid systems in Europe and USA. The remoteness of timberlnes and trelines (hey are Toeated at higher elevations in the Himalaya than most other mou could be one of the reasons for Searched. Changes in the eryosphere under of alobal warming are likely t0 affect teetine areas alpine meadows at community and ecosystem levels Heat deficiency with increase in elevation is considered to be the main cause of plants not attaining tree form beyond a certain elevation in mountains, and the forma tion of teeline. The teelines are liked to a growing scason mean temperature of 6.7°C + 085°C in the mou tains’. Due to this ertical temperature linkage, tecines ae likely to show upslope rise under the infence of slotal warmia’SPECIAL SECTION: According to Holtmeier",timberline in mountains is generally regarded as the upper elevational limit of forests with crown cover, atleast between 20% and 40%. Above this occurs the treelin, which is identified as a line connecting the uppermost trees ata site". According to this definition, a tree is generally an upright individual of a tree species with minimum height of 2m or more" The elevation width between timberline and treeline is often referred to as timberline of teeline ecotone. Indi- vidual trees may grow stil higher, but their form is longer tre-lke; they become stunted and contorted, with several stems, and with twisted and gnarled branches, ‘This could be termed as wee species line. ‘Studies on the Himalayan treelines are scarce and iso- lated, To address this shortcoming, the present study on the Himalayan teeline has taken a multisite, multi- partner and multidseiplinary approach (under the National Mission on Himalayan Studies of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India). Our objectives were: to map timberline ata re- sional level using remote-sensing techniques, estimate surface temperature apse rate (TLR) based on observed data along elevation transects, analyse altitudinal pattem of vezetation leading to the treeline ecotone, document and analyse plant phenological responses to climate change, examine whether timberline trees are affected by ‘water stress, study the relationship between tree ring arowth and climate change, understand the impact of early snowmelt on species composition and plant community characters and growth, and to examine the scope of livelihood interventions at local community level in con- servation and management of timberline resources. Material and methods Occupying about 11° of latitudinal range and 31° of Jongitudinal range (Figure 1), the Himalayan region (plus Hindu Kush) is not only massive, but also highly hetero- szeneous. Precipitation generally varies ftom less than '300 mm in some ofthe rainshadow areas in the north of the main Himalayan range to more than 4000 mm in rmonsoon-drenched southem slopes of the Easter Hima- laya. Generally, monsoon weakens from the east to west: hhowever, conditions also vary locally in each part area because of topographic factors. In the areas shielded by high mountains, the monsoon months (June September) account for less than 40% of annual rainfall, the Kast valley surrounded by the high Pir Panjal ranges being a typical example of this. However, in much of the outer anges the monsoon months (June September) account for 70 80% of annual rainfall. The Himalaya is warming ata rate significantly higher than global average rate, and the warming rate is increasing with altitude®**" For detailed observations, we selected three sites located in Kashmir (dry with weak monsoon), Uttarakhand (UK: moist with strong monsoon) and Sikkim (wet with strong monsoon) (Figure 1). Remote sensing method for regional timberline ‘mapping Satellite images of Landsat 8 (multispectral, spatial reso- lution of 30 m) were used fo generate regional-scaletim- Derline maps. For fine-esolution mapping of watershed, ‘wo different high-resolution satellite images were used (ee Latwal eral for detail), Surface temperature lapse rate To estimate TLR, ten portable ONSET HOBO Pro-V2 jcrobloggers and six RG-200 tipping bucket rain gauges Global Water make; 8" dia) were installed along an clevation gradient from 1500 to 3680 m at NW and SE ‘of Tungnath, Uttarakhand (see Joshi et i. for details). Vegetation along elevation gradient leading to timberline ‘The selected altitudinal transects (e.g. 2200-3800 m in Kashmir) were divided into 100 m elevation bands (e- 17 in Kashmir). Three plots of $0 x 50 m area each were established in each of these altitudinal bands. In each sch plot ten (10 10 m) quadrats for trees, 20 (5 $m) for shrubs and 40 (1 > 1 m) for herbs were laid randomly for vegetation sampling" ”. Phenology Phenological observations on various plhenophases were rade on five species (Abies spectabilis, Betula utils, Quercus semecarpyfolia, Rhododendron arborenm, and Rhododendron campanulatun) a a monthly interval” ‘igure Lhe te tinbertioe omy sits covering much ofthe ange ‘transi trot the Hatlayan Ac, a ropesening tees prs to eines coarteny Suhr Sarin CBPRIHESD, Alma)NATIONAL MISSION ON HIMALAYAN STUDIES ‘igure 2. A view of highly curving and iting tinbertine ithe Himalaya derived fom LIS V (58m pial eon), Tree water relation ‘Tree water potential (¥), pressure volume curves and leat conductance were measured on five representative individuals of each of the selected tee species across the Tree ring width chronology ‘This was based on about 300 tee core samples from 153, silver fir tees at Tungnath, Apart ftom this, 125 fir trees ‘were measured for GBH to assess the girth class distnbu- Early snowmelt effect To determine the effect of snow on vegetation, we selected two slopes with different snow cover: (i) 70 80% cover, referred to as high snow cover (HSC), and (i) 30 40% cover, relerred to as low snow cover (LSC). The ‘stow cover lasted for at least 20 25 days longer in the HSC site than the LSC site" Livelihood interventions We conducted interviews at the household level, Focus Group Discussions (FGDS), individual mterviews, meetings and discussions with village representatives to collect information regarding the dependence of people on forest resources. Compact area approach was adopted for ‘implementation of livelihood interventions, and to gear up activities for entrepreneur development and ensuring market access", Based on PRA, FGDs and discussions ‘with allied stakeholders, the main options were catego- rized, ‘The cost-benefit analysis of each intervention (at a demonstration scale) was worked out™. The interventions ‘were: offseason vegetable cultivation under polyhouses, vermin-composting, floriculture, rainwater harvesting, ‘mushroom cultivation, training for making moder ringal handicraft, etc. Results and discussion Timberline mapping ‘As revealed by mapping with remote sensing techniques, 4 timberline at the regional scale 1s @ long, highly ‘curved line, full of turns and twists, However, much of the total length occurred within the mid-elevation ranges: 80.2% and 74.9% within 3200 3800 m in HP and UK respectively, and $2.7% within 3600 4200 m in sikim,SPECIAL SECTION: ae ace eae eee =a a ante ata ener eos = Sree S There was a tendency of increase in timberline eleva- tion from the west to east. For example, the proportion of, the total timberline length occurring ina relatively higher clevation band (38004000 m) was 4.1% in HP, 15.8% in ‘UK and 31.6% in Sikkim, Micro-level species distribution at Tungnath, Uttarakhand In Tungnath timberline-treeline ecotone the tee species Were Abies pindrow, Abies spectabilis, Quercus semecar- ifolia, Betula utils, Rhododendron arboreum, R. cam- anularum, Sorbus foliolosa, Prumis conta, Acer caesium and Viburmim grandifforun. Each of them be- ‘came frontline tree species at some sites. The upper limit of B. uilis-R. arboreum community was 3503 m (Table 1), Sorbus foliolosa (3286-3507 m), @ small tee (3-5 m high) and 2 camapnularum, a krummbolz species seem to take advantage of the warming as their seedlings and saplings often occurred beyond timberlines and trelines. ‘The length of timberline segment (tls) varied from 0.82 km for Q. semecarplfolia to 2.62 for A. pindrow (Cable 1). These segments were zig-zag, running across 352 km (3068-3460 m) within a small area of a few ‘square kilometres. The mean elevation range of tnber- line varied from 3137 m for O. semecarpifolia to 3340 m for mixed R arboreum-B. uilis ecotone. Above the tim berlines, trees occurred over varying elevation, ranging between 94 and 221 m: these can be denoted as the eleva- tion widis of treeline ecotone. In Sikkim, the elevation width of treeline (4. densa-dominated) was from 0 to 155 m (te. 26). Surface temperature lapse rate Detailed analysis of observed data from Tungnath shows that mean annual TLR wes distinctly lower (-0.53°C/ 100 m) than the commonly used value (-0.65°C/100 m)". Is likely that TLR has decreased recently because of alobal warming, which causes enhanced elevation- dependent warming (EDW: according to this, the warm- ing rate is greater in higher elevation areas than lower clevation areas). TLR varies significantly with seasoa, being much lower in December (-024°C/100 m) than during pre-monsoon (March-May, -0.64°C/100 m) and ‘other months. TLR also changes with aspect, being lower in the warmer south aspect than cooler north aspect, and higher for maximum than minimum temperature (Figure 3), The lower TLR. for minimum temperature could be telated to more EDW. The low TLR might have accounted for high trelines inthe Himalaya. Using -0.53°C TLR rate we estimate that treline can 0 approximately up to 4000 m which is higher than the ‘summit height. Thus, the ene alpine meadow at Tung~ rath will be converted into forest if climatic timberline could be attained, Vegetation along elevation gradients leading 10 timberline ecotone Kashmir: The vegetation of the entre elevation transect (2200-3700 m) consisted of 441 plant species, with eight luce species, one liana, 20 shrubs, and sub-shrubs and 218 hherbs (Table 2). Among lower plants there were 33 pteri- dophytes, four liverworts, 35 mosses and 155 lichens (70 cnustose, 71 foliose, 7fruticose and 7 leprose). The total plant species richness (per 100 m elevation band) as well as of Various groups tended to show a wavy pattem, and a ‘marginal decline with altitude (Figure 4 0). Lichens formed a sloping broad plateau from 2400 to 3600 m: in this most species had broad elevational range, resulting in a constantly high species richness (from 38 to 52 spex cies). In contrast, there were 46 herb species confined to single 100 m elevation band: they are likely to be most threatened by climate change. ‘The total species number as well as the species number of various taxonomical groups declined monotonically fiom closed forest to alpine meadow (Figure 4 8). The total species count was 294, 232 and 170 in closed forest, timberline ecofone and alpine meadow sections respec- tively Figure 4a) Uttarakhand: There were 1471 species with 106 tees 235 shrubs and 1152 herbs in the three study elevation transects (2000-3500 m), A majority of these species (203, 52.5%) were Himalayan natives of which 39.1% are near-endemics tothe Himalaya. Nativity across life-forms was 47.4% for herbs, 59.3% for trees and 68.2% forNATIONAL MISSION ON HIMALAYAN STUDIES tees sh Figures ‘Table 2 Species snes an ol wee basal ae i Anal cycle of manu minimum od mean temperature pe ate (TLR) 0a NW aspect elevaton resioee aproaching weline a the tee say site. Site speci free ‘tad species cous a elevation rane ae ao eso Kastie lesional ame, leva, lata, Feet meas saat temperate, a! antl ‘Dakaua-Siton top Ieaeect 32°36 2X, (etn 40 km) 12°C, Tonguath-ChoptaTungsath (CD) easel S0S0 76 S02TSEN, 3500 m At 3300 m (imberine ‘Usaha ‘Si ‘Yotau-Droage tame, 00-4000 ‘hangecendzeng National Pat (2X), ‘Sin, 27041-26730, prspaation snd 1035 mm sooaey 67070, and sd 1021 15701 mim Tat pei Aatping, wavy pateas e ‘Overall declining patern wth eatin ‘ith peak ode @=07) ‘roe the gb Peak of 139 species at 3500 m Tre Stampiapo,maey 2429; ile ham at 2500m im 23; asloping plates om 3000 3800, ‘ure, peak a 2400m; a decinng eis riciness which it devine apis ove pattern ‘hen sharp decline dectinng st ‘Mende toncreane with 26; jars with elevation peaks 43200: trea eines levaioa Wah oe ‘slost montoiealy ‘p10 3400 m flowed by alae twough four pak He 218(indodmg meadows); 138; increases with elevation, 64; concave curve withat east two tosh ‘wat wth four peaks Duthie seater ‘nth meat 300 and 3500) ‘sate ough ald 00 melevaion Peak 525m a 5200 m wih mean of shrubs. While the number of woody species declined sharply with increasing elevation, the aumber of herb species was relatively stable along the elevation gradient The altitudinal decrease of species/genera ratio (SiG) in case of trees in the study area may imply their phylo- genetic overdispersion towards higher altitude, On the contrary, the increasing S/G ratio of shrubs and hetbs towards higher altitude implies phylogenetic clumping. indicating that diversification within the genera is more intense ‘At the local level, $5 taxa with recorded low abun- dance and narrow ecological amplitude deserve greater attention for conservation (CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 120,NO. 5,10 MARCH 2021, Sikkim: The widest elevation range was observed for ‘A. densa (3000-3900 m) and S. microphylla (3100- 3989 m)'* In contrast, . fulgens was confined tothe up- per end of the forest range. Tree species richness declined ‘monotonically along the elevation gradient, with a small ‘bump at 3400 m (Figure 8) In Sikkim, treeline ecotone was studied in detail by ‘sampling nine contiguous sites. It indicated that 4. densa, S. micropinlia and R. lanatum occurred at all the sites (igure 6) In total, ten tree species occured in the eleva- tional transect, of which six were of rhododendrons. ‘Compared fo this, Kashmir and UK sites, with four and five tree species respectively, were much less species-tich,SPECIAL SECTION’ Nontarct apace @ eeeeeeuees WLablabdaii stosmges #Ocoennsstemhinens sSimmagem Pressey “Ehren Hane Te o*, Figure 4a, Kadi wane, Daksom Sizthan Top (2200 3800). Number of spaces, genera and fais of 1700 m), indicating that at many sites it is depressed possibly because of livestock grazing, and other anthropogenic and topo- araphical factors. (iv) Timberline elevation tends. to increase fiom NW to SE along the Himalayan Are for ‘most species. (v) Himalayan timberline is generally hish- cer in the warmer south aspect than cooler north aspect. (vi) Himalayan timberline is higher inthe central part of, ranges than towards peripheral areas. All treeline forms scribed in the literature, abrupt, diffuse, finger andSPECIAL SECTION: South facing slope igure §Repeenatation of tnbeine md line species and tir elevations in ese sy sites of malaj Seam sad thr, Utarland aod Ski. {sland types occur in the Himalaya, However, a form may change within a teelime segment. For example, in Sikkim fan 4. densa-dominated treline was abrupt fype in one part and diffuse type in another part. In Kashmir site, the teeline was 100 m higher in the south aspect than the north aspect. Here, the effect of aspect could also be seen on the ecotone species. In the moist northem aspect from lower to higher elevation, species pattem was as follows: fir alone, fir and birch mixed, and birch alone, while the drier southern aspect haa fir and biue pine (Pinus wallichiana) Figure 8). The umber of tree species in the timberline ecotone increased from NW to SE end of the Himalaya, Phenology At Tungnath study site, mean atmospheric temperature forthe growing period (July September) has increased by about 1°C (@ O.11°C/y) during the last two decades (between 1990 97 and 2017). The mean growing season temperature at treeline (11.2°C) was much higher than that aserbed to climatic treeline (6.7°C). Soils were cooler than air temperature, and the difference between their temperatures increased during autumn fiom the lowest in August (Figure 9) Comparison with mod-elevation sites At Tungnath, maximum temperature occurred in August, ‘compared to June in mid-elevation forests. The effect of delay inthe time of maximum temperature can be seen in the delayed leaf initiation in treeline ecotone. A compari- son of leaf and shoot growth of Quercus spp. and . ar Doreum between the mid-altitude forests of this region and Tungnath site shows that bud-break and leafing take place about 4 6 weeks earlier at the mid-altitude site’ The leaf expansion within the frst month of leafing in these species was conspicuously greater at the mid- altitude site (83% versus 43% in Quercus spp., and 76% versus 49% in Rarborewn). A shorter shoot extension period (2 S months versus 4 6 months) and lower shoot ‘rowth at the trecline ecotone for Quercus spp. and R ‘arboreun than at the mid-altitude site (mean shoot Tength ~$.6 em versus 9.5 em) were the other strikingNATIONAL MISSION ON HIMALAYAN STUDIES e: ge : Be — = : ee 2g we ° ‘| “3 2 ° Sep Ot Nw igure. Air ant soil emperatre sou th uy perdi 2017 ina Baul us (bec) frst std features of shoot growth phenology. Leaves were more densely packed along shoot length at teeline species (0.8 versus 1.2 leaves/cm shoot length. ‘Treeline species at Tungnath were relatively poor in leaf N at mature stage than the mid-altitude forest trees (255 versus 1.794)”. Studies conducted elsewhere have sown that nutrient concentration in the soil and trees de- creases with increasing elevation in treeline ecotone™, and this might explain why treeline shift and global ‘warming are decoupled. Our data also show that both soil nutrients (total N, R?—0.30; and organic carbon (00), R ~0.223) and foliar N decreased with increasing clevation though the relation was weak, indicating nutrient conservation strategy of R camparulatun in poor site conditions. The treeline soil OC concentration ‘was much higher than that reported for mid-altirude forests of this region (range ~ 0.8-3.3%). Soil organic carbon stock has been reported to be the highest for 2. rls across a variety of temperate forests ofthe Kashmir Himalaya” Rate of Rhododendron campanulanum upward In the studied elevation transect of Tungnath site (3511— 3665 mams), a total of 17 adult individuals and 36 seedlings of R. campanulaum were found growing in 2017. About half of the R campanulatum adult individu als had seedlings around their canopies. Taking the mean distance of seedlings from the mother te (average 2.8 my ranges ~0.50—4.72 m) and mean age of the seedl- ings (from 2 to 9 yrs; mean — 39 yt: determined by the yumber of internodes) the rate of upward advancement of &. canpanulanm popalation was computed at 1.4 my ‘The interspaces between the krummholz patches are gen erally being filled by regenerating individuals, which may lead fo the densification of ecotone in future. How- exer, treline has not moved up in spite of decades of ‘warming Tree water relation ‘The timberline (TL) forest soils were more moist than soils of mid-elevation sites (MES). The presawn water potential (¥) inthe TL sites generally remained above “LO MPa, while values below -1.0 MPa were common in MES. At TL site, snowmelt keeps the soil moist during pre-monsoon season (Aptil and May), wile itis generally Stressful in MES because of warm temperature and scanty ‘inal (es than 10% of anal rainfall). AUT the magnitude of daily change in of tees was significantly higher (from 1.07 to 1.22 MPe) than at low elevation sites (ffom 0.41 100.78 MPa). This indicates that TL species tend to keep their stomata more open and conduct leaf water more fesy than ME species “The TL species differed from ME species also in sea~ sonal pattem of daily change of water potenti. In all TL species, AY was maximum during the rainy’ season which is the time when ME species have litle AY, (average acoss four species. 0.16 MPa). This is reflected in the rainy season soil water potential, which was 0.37 MPa for ME sites, and between —1.28 and -1.60 for TL sites. a¥? senerally peaked when ‘Py, as above 0.5 MPa and tended to decline with decteasing Ys However, 4. spec~ tubils could maintain 8 AY of 1.19 MPa when Wy was “12 MPa at TL sites. Ina study in Nepal on @. ene crpifolia the daily change in AX was reported to be (0.77 MPa at Wyg-0.40 MPa, Forel al.” have reported AY values up fo “1.5 MPa in Mediteranean oaks daring doug. The TL species dered from each another in the extent and timing of osmotic adjustment Tnterestinaly, TL species maintained «relatively higher level of leaf conductance during the rainy season. The rmoming lea conductance across all seasons and species of the teeline reas sanged between 28.75: 145 and 5329.28.98 mol msec" “Among oaks, maximum condoctance for Q. semecarp- Jolia was lower than that reported for Q. lecotricho ‘phora and Q. floribunda, te mid-eevaton oaks)” andSPECIAL SECTION: much lower than for the deciduous oak Q. rubra (400 mmol msec"). Some other oaks maintain high conductance with low water potential. For example, 0. dumosa (L.) has a conductance of 80 mmol msec! at 3.34 MPa (ret. 41), 0. coccifera(L.) bas a conductance of 150 mmol m-* see" at 3.0 MPa, and Q dowglasit has 8 conductance of >200 mmol msec"! at 3.6MPa (ref. 42). B. utilis appears to make maximum use of the late spring and summer season, and maintain a high mor leaf conductance. In R. urborewn the moming conduc- tance ranges between 44432115 and 216.0% 3.79 mmol m-*see which is comparable with the range 28 219 mmol mi” sec" reported by Poudyal e7 a and ‘Tewari fom the lower Himalayan sites. Tree ring width chronology The tee ring study on silver fir (4. yectubils) indicates the absence of recruitment during the past four decades of rapid warming. Rai e7 a also reported the absence of natural regeneration of silver fir community above the forest limit, Ths is contrary to recent tresline advance- meat reported from some Himalayan sites in India!” and Nepal **8°. Grazing by herbivores has been taken as an important determinant of treline position and tre growth and pop- ‘lation structure elsewhere™”" and could be a potentially important factor in the mesic area as young Abies indi~ als have some forage value and may be susceptible to sracing by wild and domestic herbivores. In a study i the Swiss Alps, land abandonment was reported 10 be the principal driver of treeline rise, and only a small action of upward shift was reported to be due to climate change’. ‘The tree-ing width in fir was positively correlated with winter (December February) temperature, and nega> tively correlated with temperature of the pre-monsoon mouth, ie. May. However, pre-mousoon (April May) precipitation had a fivourable effect on teeing growth, indicating that pre-monsoon warming could favour srowth when it is accompanied by moisture. The positive response of tree growth fo winter temperature observed in this study is similar to growth behaviour in some other sites of the Himalaya, viz, Westem Himalaya‘, Nep- at, Sikkim’” and Tibe?**. Favourable influence of ‘winter temperature on growth of an everareen species is rather contrary to general understanding, which dismisses 1 role of winter temperature as a factor controlling treelines, There are also data from several sites from other mountain regions to indicate that winter warming is a driver of the upslope advance of recline". The increased temperatures in winter and early spring might favour photosynthesis and other physiological activities that lead to carly initiation of cambium formation and division Observations of the present study on tree water relations indicate that the tees actively conduct water, withdrawing soil water fiom deeper unfiozen soil during relatively warm hours of sunny days, Early snowmelt effect Plant growth period (period from the beginning of growth to the time when about 80° of plant shoots have senesced) was about 5-6 months from about mid-April to mid-October. This is longer for a moustain region of warm temperate latitudes. Even within 5-6 months rowing petiod, growth initiation in the species was stag~ ered, “The total species number inthe study area of Tungnath site increased as the growth period progressed from 44 in ‘May to 80 in September. The peak species richness in ‘easly snowmelt microsites (average 21.8 £0.4 species m*) ‘was Significantly higher than in the late snow melt micro- sites (average 17.6 * 0.6 species m *), indicating the posi- tive effect of longer and favourable growth period on species diversity. The plant growth in treline and alpine areas is influenced by the timing of snowmelt, post snowmelt temperature and soil moisture™, in Tungnath, temperature is becoming warmer due to global change ‘and soil moisture is constantly high during this period". Sites where snowmelt oceurs earlier, are more productive and species-rich than those where snowmelt is delayed” *. Livelihood interventions ‘The timberline cotones and their nearby areas in Central Himalaya remain under anthropogenic pressure du tothe resource use by people, often resulting in an ecosystem degradation. There is evidence to indicate the local ‘esfinction of birch from a shrine. In the Chopta. Tungnath ttecline ecotone area, livelihood options for local com- ‘munities are limited, amd largely based on natural biota Still the consumption of firewood is very high in the study area, averaging 7 8 tonnes fuelwood per household amually. In shops/restaurants serving tourists and local people, consumption goes up-10 10 14 tonnes fuelwood per year. The summertime religious tourism accounts for about 47% of income ofthe studied households (882 n0s) of timberlineinked villages. Among the non-farm sources, the second major share was of business/self- income of about 33.8% with engagement of scholds) connected to tourism. Of the various livelihood interventions eattied out in two timberline villages, offseason vegetable cultivation in polyhouses was the most favoured (adopted by 120 families) fol- owed by mushroom cultivation. About 1600 kg of vege- tables and 60 kg of Pleurotus mushroom worth INR 35,000 and 42,000 respectively, were produced. Cultiva- tion in polyhouses gives protection agoinst climateNATIONAL MISSION ON HIMALAYAN STUDIES extremes, which are on an increase inthe high and remote Himalaya. Conclusion and management implications Though evidences for the upslope movement of treeline at the study sites (Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Sikkim) are lacking, densification of treline ecotone and advancement of krummbolz species (R. campanulatum) into alpine meadows are noticeable. Both can be 2 serious threat to the diversity and integrity of alpine meadows. The increased woody cover may bring about several changes, such as the reduction in albedo and daytime cooling of sol, Livestock grazing is already on a decline in the Himalaya’, and wild mammal grazing in timberline areas is quite low because of their sparse population. However, tree-cutting for firewood still continues, and may keep the treline stationary for some years ‘By mapping timberline atthe repional level, the present study has raised timberline status from a mete landmark to-a widespread and dynamic biological system constantly influencing and exchanging with alpine grasslands on its higher side (alpine meadows). Equally fascinating could be the processes occurring within ecotones involving rummbolz patches, woody mats of juniper, and ecosy- stems dominated by herbs. What steps can be taken to initiate the management of these long segments of vege- tation? Fist, there is need to identify large meadow areas where species could survive. Second, establish a long- term study programme on selected sites to document and ‘understand temporal and spatial dynamics over an appro- priately longtime, Biota of these high-altitude areas have a high percentage of endemic species, many remaining restricted 102 single 100m elevation band (eg. 46 species in Kashmir). Threat analysis, as done for some species in the high ranges of Uttarakhand! isa necessary step towards conservation. Rarity analysis of native spe- cies as done for high-altde areas of Unarakband™” could be a useful step towards conservation priorities About 27% ofthe species ofthis part are locally scarce with narrow ecological amplitude; hence they are at high risk of extinction in a situation characterized by highly uncertain fre ‘Our data show that TLR is lower, particularly during some autumn-winter months, than generally perceived, Studies are necessary to analyse whether the low TLR is related to climate warming which is more in higher eleva- tions than the lower elevations, resulting inthe reduction of their temperature difference. Winters in the Himalaya are already mild®. allowing evergreen tee species to ccamy ott photosynthesis, particularly on sunny days. The positive response of tree-ring growth in A. pindrow to winter temperature might suggest thatthe fir is likely to be favoured by EDW. 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Gea Ree: Bioeors 2008, 113, 607008; dy 10 1029 2073000819 68. Nabe Naren Noman, §, Hot F-K.C., StewarL, Bay, C, [NobeNobn Lad Schmit NM, Plant common compo. fiion and species riches in the high atc tod Som the Prevat tothe fate Bel Bvel, 2017, 703), 1233 10282 oe 10 0003 156 (8, Sakai A ond Mal. Winter hudings of wea specis a ich ster the Eas Himalaya, Nepal col), 1981, 62, 1288- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, Thi tay was camod out spat ofthe {dian Milan Teens Research CHEER) projec. The fom ton received under the atonal Mision on Himalayan Stace (AIS, Minieey of Enrinment, Forest and Climate Chane, Got ‘cme of Ini edly acknowledged We tha the Cordon ITP poject and Director, GBPNIHESD, Gangtok for pomingthe ncssay facies 10 conduc this stad. We alo thas the Project Management Unt (Coal Hialayan Eminent Asciston) af TTR. Uteakinnd Forest Deparer, aod te Decor, HAPPRC, Stina or oppor in implemen of th sto 1018520. 12055859.871 (CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 120,NO. 5,10 MARCH 2021,