Socio - 2022 - Paper 1 - Solved PYQ

HIGHLY RELEVANT MODEL ANSWERS
UPSC CSE 2022 EXAM

Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
SOCIOLOGY (PAPER-I)
SOCIOLOGY- Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
(MODEL ANSWER - 2022) PAPER-I
1. (a) Delimit the scope of Sociology in relation to other social sciences.

Sociology is a science of society. As a social science it attempts to study social life as a whole. But for
the understanding of social life as a whole, sociology requires the help of other social sciences which
study different other aspects of society.
Positioning Sociology among other Sciences
Scope of Sociology in relation to other social sciences

● Sociology and History
o Differences:
a. Past v/s present: Sociology studies modern society which includes historical
development of society such as different stages of human life, way of living, their
culture/tradition, various institutions, etc. On the other hand history studies the past in a
systematic manner.
b. Normative v/s Descriptive: Sociology tries to establish causal relationships, generalize
events and has some normative elements. History focuses on delineating actual events and
is more descriptive.
▪ Example: Weber came to the generalization ‘Protestant ethic leads to capitalism’
through data of historians about different religions of the world.
o Similarities: Both sociology and history are concerned with social events because present
society bears symbols of the past. G. Von Bulow has refused to acknowledge sociology as a
science distinct from history.
▪ Example: Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre, who established the Annales School of History
to examine long-term social history, were influenced by Durkheim
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● Sociology and Political Science

o Differences: Sociology studies the various social activities and social relationships of human
beings. Political Science studies political activities, state, power, parties conducted within the
society their principles and their activities.
▪ Ex: Sociology studies the pattern of voting of individuals while conventional political science
studies the distribution of power in formal institutions, political theory and administration
1. Similarities: Polity in sociology: Political science provides laws and affects social institutions
as well, for e.g. liberalism vs orthodox religious code.
2. Sociology in Polity: Social considerations like caste, kinship, ethnicity play an important role
in the political arena as well. In the words of Morris Ginsberg, “Historically Sociology has its
main roots in politics and philosophy of history.”
▪ Example: The extensive effects of Brexit and the US Presidential elections serve as evidence
that Wallerstein represents a convergence of global sociology and international politics.
● Sociology and Economics
o Differences:
1. Scope: Economics is the study of production in society while sociology studies all aspects of
society. The scope of economics is comparatively narrower as it is concerned only with
economic activities.
▪ Example: Economics concerns itself with how to produce a chair. Sociology looks at
relations of production.
2. Nature: Sociology is abstract in nature whereas economics is concrete and more scientific in
nature and emphasizes pure economic variables like supply-demand, money flows etc.
o Similarities: Every society is influenced by economic factors whereas all the economic activities
or processes are determined by the existing social environment. Economic development,
industrialization, production, distribution etc. cannot be made effective without the study of the
society.
▪ Example: Barbara Cotton’s book “The Social Foundations of Wage Policy”
● Sociology and Psychology
o Differences:
1. Nature: Sociology is General science focussed on relationships and institutions like family,
religion, power etc. whereas psychology is a particular science focussed on basic instincts,
sympathy, passions etc.
2. Scope: Sociology studies society from a sociological point of view. Psychology studies
individual behavior.
3. Methodology: Sociology analyzes social processes. Psychology analyzes mental processes
and is more scientific and experimental.
o Similarities: Psychology provides the real facts regarding matter of social structure, culture and social
organizations to which an individual belongs in this sense sociology must have a psychological basis as
it depends on exploring human nature in social relationships.
▪ Ex: Mead's concept of development of self and mind highlights both societal and individual roles.

● Sociology and Anthropology

o Differences:
1. Scope: Anthropology devotes its attention entirely to the study of man and his culture as they
developed in times long past. Anthropology also studies physical aspects related to evolution
and biology. Sociology, on the other hand, studies the same phenomena as they exist at
present.
2. Time period: According to Kluckhon, “The sociological attitude has tended towards the
practical and present, the anthropological towards pure understanding and the past.”
o Similarities: Anthropology provides knowledge about ancient societies which helps to create a
comprehensive understanding of present society. Both study the same matter- man, only separated
by time and cultural elements.
▪ Example: William Whyte has adopted participant observation for the study of modern
industrial society.
The aspects of social life are interrelated; hence the study of one aspect cannot suffice to understand the
entire fact. For this reason sociology should symmetrically study social life as a whole in synergy with
other social sciences.
1. (b) How does a researcher achieve objectivity in Interpretive research?

Interpretive research is a research paradigm that is based on the assumption that social reality is not
singular or objective but is rather shaped by human experiences and social contexts (ontology), and is
therefore best studied within its socio-historical context. It makes use of qualitative research methods.
Example: Max Weber in his book ‘Methods of Social Science’
Researcher can achieve objectivity in Interpretive research through

● Neutral Stance: The researcher must take a “neutral” or unbiased stance during the data collection
and analysis processes and ensure that her personal biases or preconceptions do not taint the nature
of subjective inferences derived from interpretive research.

● Simultaneous Analysis: Data collection and analysis can proceed simultaneously and iteratively
in interpretive research.
o Example: the researcher may conduct an interview and code it before proceeding to the next
interview.
● Use of scientific methods: Verstehen (Weber’s approach), training of researchers, enlarging of
samples and expanding the research in both temporal and spatial dimensions.
● Systematic and transparent approaches: In interpretive research, rigour is seen more in terms
of systematic and clear ways to collect and analyse data than in terms of statistical standards for
testing construct validity or significance.
● Use of expressive language: Documenting the verbal and non-verbal language of participants
and the analysis of such language are integral components of interpretive analysis
● Hermeneutic circle: Interpretive interpretation should be an iterative process of moving back and
forth from pieces of observations (text) to the whole social phenomenon (context). This reconciles
their apparent differences and builds a theory that fits the different subjective viewpoints and
experiences of the embedded participants.
● Improving credibility: Interpretive research is more likely to be believed if there is proof that the
researcher has been working in the field for a long time, if there is evidence of data triangulation
across subjects or data collection methods, and if there is careful data management and analysis.
● Ensuring dependability: Interpretive researchers must present enough information about
their phenomenon and its social context. This allows readers to independently verify their
judgements.
● Ensuring confirmability: It refers to the extent to which the findings reported in interpretive
research can be independently confirmed by others (typically, participants). The participants agree
with the inferences drawn by a researcher about a phenomenon of interest based on a review of
the research paper.
● Ensuring Transferability: The researcher must give a rich, detailed description of the research
setting ("thick description") and describe in detail the structures, assumptions, and processes that
the data show. This way, readers can decide for themselves if and how much the reported findings
can be used in other settings.
Challenges in achieving objectivity.

• Resource intensive: this type of research tends to be more time and resource intensive than
positivist research in data collection and analytic efforts.
• Human resource challenge: interpretive research requires well-trained researchers who can see
and interpret complex social phenomena from the perspectives of embedded participants and
reconcile their diverse perspectives without introducing their own biases or preconceptions.
• Data challenges: Too little data might lead to erroneous or premature assumptions, while too
much data may not be analysed by the researcher. Data sources may be biased, unreliable, or
misinformed regarding the phenomenon of interest.
• Trust challenge: Inadequate trust between participants and researcher may hinder full and honest
self-representation by participants, and such trust building takes time.

Therefore, on one hand, the qualitative researcher wants to remain close and intimate to their social
settings. On the other hand, hierarchies of evidence and trustworthiness criteria etc demand that the
researcher remains distant and balanced on the collected data to maintain objectivity in his research. Thus,
a careful and measured balance is needed to investigate society’s multi-layered truths.
1. (c) The difference between information and data in social science is subtle. Comment.
Information comprises structured, organized, and processed data, conferred inside context, making it
relevant and helpful. Data suggests raw facts and figures regarding individuals, places, etc. that is
expressed within the type of numbers, letters, or symbols.
Difference between data and information

Data are the variables that help to Information is a refined form of actual
develop ideas/conclusions. data.
Data are text and numerical values. It Information is meaningful data.
Nature
can be qualitative, for e.g., opinion on
marriage or quantitative, for e.g.,
number of children/family.
Reliability Data doesn’t rely on Information. Information relies on Data.
Data does not have any specific Information carries a meaning that has
Purpose
purpose been assigned by interpreting data.
Data is a collection of facts, which Information puts those facts into context.
Role
itself has no meaning.
Data acquired by researchers might Information adds value and usefulness to
Usability become useless if they have no researchers since they are readily
analytical inferences to make. available
Example of data is student test score. Example of information is average score
Example
of class that is derived from given data.

However, there are similarities between data and information:

● Errors: Both are the meterage, and each has some measurement errors. The theory of errors and
processing of experimental results will help assess data and information for specific processes in
this case.
● Methods: In practice, methods of validation and verification of input data are used to improve the
quality of information.
● Cause-effect: Data is analyzed, structured, and given composure or context to make it useful, we
find information.
● Complementary: Data is information collected, information is data processed
Therefore, the terms “data” and “information” are sometimes used interchangeably. However, there is a
subtle difference between the two which should be kept in mind by the researcher of social science.
1. (d) Durkheim argued that society is more than the sum of individual acts. Discuss.
Society, in its simplest terms can be described as a body of individuals living as members of a community.
As a functionalist, Émile Durkheim’s (1858–1917) perspective on society stressed the necessary
interconnectivity of all of its elements.
Society is more than the sum of individual acts as:
● Individual behaviour v/s collective behaviour: Individual behaviour was not the same as
collective behaviour, and that studying collective behaviour was quite different from studying an
individual’s actions.
Example: Rejecting Rousseau’s origin of morality in ‘individual human nature’, Durkheim links
morality to disciplining activities in a group.
● Evolutionary Perspective: Society is similar to a biological organism or a body, with interrelated
parts, needs and functions for each of these parts, and structures to ensure that the parts work
together to produce a well-functioning and healthy body
Example: Religion, political system, economy, science forms different parts of society
● Society constrains individuals: Society has a structure and existence of its own, apart from the
individuals in it. Further, society and its structures influence, constrain, and even coerce
individuals in it – through norms, social facts, common sentiments, and social currents.
Example: individuals are constrained by the rule of removing footwear outside temples
● Social Order: Durkheim was especially concerned with the issue of social order. His first book,
The Division of Labour in Society, was an exploration and explanation of these issues, and he
finds the answer in the concept of social solidarity, common consciousness, systems of common
morality, and forms of law
● Social facts: Durkheim argued that sociologists should study particular features of collective or
group life and sociology is the study of social facts, things which are external to, and coercive of,
individuals.
Examples: religion, urban structures, legal systems, and moral values such as family values
● Structural functionalism: Though it is individuals who act, but they do not act on a purely
individual basis. Rather, they have obligations and duties, and generally act in ways that are
strongly influenced by the structures of which they are part.

● Society as sui generis: That is, society as a thing in itself, something of its own kind, or a thing
apart. There exists a social constraint on individuals and their actions are not strictly utilitarian or
economically driven
● Collective Consciousness: The collective consciousness binds individuals together and creates
social integration. For Durkheim, the collective consciousness was crucial in explaining the
existence of society: it produces society and holds it together. This was reflected in the origin of
religion in primitive society to increase social cohesiveness.
● Structured relationships: The relationships between the members of the society are organised in
terms of rules. Social relationships therefore are patterned and recurrent, which form the basis of
the social structure.
Example: Relationship between state and individual is structured by the rules of democracy
● Against individualism: Durkheim believed society came first. Thus, he disagrees with Spencer,
who believes self-interested people preserve society. Durkheim believed that solidarity, not
individual activities, binds society.
Criticisms of Durkheim's theory

● Conflict theorists (Marxists and Feminists) point out that Functionalists have a rose tinted view
of society – they focus too much on the positive functions that institutions perform, ignoring the
negative ways in which institutions and socialisation can have on certain people.
Example: rules of religion like not allowing mensurating women to enter temples is
constraining
● Interactionists criticise Functionalism for being a deterministic theory – human behaviour is
portrayed as being shaped by the social system, as if individuals are programmed by social
institutions, being the puppets of social forces.
Example: individuals choose to follow their own preferred sect for solace rather than established
religion
● Postmodernists are critical of the idea that society shapes the individual. Consumer society and
globalisation allow much more opportunity for individuals to shape their own identities in an
active way.
▪ Example: Identity of global citizen rather than being a member of a particular society
When we look at society from the Structural-Functionalist lens, the whole structure of society is
interconnected and accountable for maintaining equilibrium and steadiness in society. However, it is easy
to overstate how free people are – but human action is still patterned and things like suicide and
educational success still seem to be shaped by an individual’s social background.
1. (e) How do Sociology construct gender in their analysis on social Inequality?

Gender is a major social status that organises almost all areas of social life such as economy, ideology,
polity, family and so on. The distinctions between genders are more social than natural. The conceptual
distinction between ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ seeks to capture this view of the matter. It is our socialisation into
prescribed gender roles that is the driving force behind gender inequality.

Sociological construction of gender:

● Functionalist theorists
o Role allocation: They argue that men fill instrumental roles in society while women fill
expressive roles, which works to the benefit of society. Instrumental roles consist of the need
for leadership and fulfilment of the task on the one hand and the expressive role refers to need
for morale and cohesion on the other.
▪ Example: As per Parsons, women are more suited for emotional functions in the family
like child rearing.
● Symbolic interaction theorists: They look at gender from the micro perspective and examine
gender stratification on a day-to-day level. These theorists also focus on how gender roles are
internalized by males and females.
Example: men are more likely to interrupt women in conversations and in their workspaces which
generally reflect greater power possessed by the males.
● Conflict theorists: They view women as disadvantaged because of power inequalities between
women and men that are built into the social structure.
For example: Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force
is also seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat (i.e., the industrial
age, routine-bound workers). This leads to wage inequalities outside households by devaluing
their work.
● Feminist theory: It emerged out of the women’s movement and aims to understand the inferior
position of women in society for the sole purpose of improving the position in society.
o There are four major frameworks that have developed out of feminist theory:
• Liberal feminists argue that gender inequality results from past traditions that pose barriers to
women’s advancement.
▪ Example: Tamil Nadu’s political party promise of providing wages for care work of women
• Socialist feminists argue that the origin of women’s oppression lies with the system of capitalism.
Because women are a cheap supply of labour, they are exploited by a capitalist, which makes them
less powerful both as women and as workers.
▪ Example: Margaret Benston- Nuclear family is a valuable stabilizing force in capitalist
society because-

1. Emotional support of wife

2. Reproduction of labor power.
▪ Example: Many of the jobs are highly gendered and are commonly seen as ‘women’s work’
like Secretarial and caring jobs.
• Radical feminists see patriarchy as the main cause of women’s oppression and argue that
women’s oppression lies in men’s control over women’s bodies.
▪ Example: Laura M Purdy: Women should go on baby strike as disadvantages for women
stem from child care responsibilities
• Multiracial feminists examine the interactive influence of gender, race, and class, showing how
together they shape the experiences of all women and men.
Example: Black women are doubly exploited in USA because of their gender and race
Thus, sociologists argue that gender is learnt through socialization. The sociological significance of
gender is that it is a device by which society controls its members. Sociologists reinforce that the types of
work men and women do in each society are determined not by biology but by social arrangements.
2. (a) What aspects of 'Enlightenment' do you think paved way for the emergence of sociology?
Elaborate
Approach
• Intro : Introduce the enlightenment period
• Body : Write aspects of 'Enlightenment' that paved way for the emergence of sociology
• Conclusion : Highlight the significance of enlightenment in emergence of sociology
The roots of the ideas developed by the early sociologists are grounded in the social conditions that
prevailed in Europe. The Enlightenment refers to an intellectual movement, primarily in France and
Britain, that spans approximately one hundred years from the 1680s to 1789 marked by a rejection of
traditional social, religious, and political ideas and an emphasis on rationalism.
Aspects of 'Enlightenment' that paved way for the emergence of sociology:

● Scientific Culture: Scientific inventions such as the steam engine began to have an increasing
application in controlling the forces of nature. The advances in travel made the world grow smaller
and allowed the development of the vast British and Russian Empires.

● The philosophy of enlightenment: Modern philosophy no longer made appeal to authorities such
as Plato and Aristotle. Rather, the main source of knowledge was the ‘great book of the world’
itself, and this book was ‘read’ through experience.
● Emergence of Public Spheres: One of the most significant cultural shifts that occurred during
this time was the emergence of a venue for the public gathering of private individuals. The coffee
shops, reading groups, etc. were all part of this public sphere. Habermas defines the public sphere
as a "society engaged in critical public debate". The Conditions of the public sphere are-
1. The formation of public opinion
2. All citizens have access.
3. Conference in unrestricted fashion (based on the freedom of assembly, the freedom of
association, the freedom to expression and publication of opinions) about matters of general
interest, which implies freedom from economic and political control.
4. Debate over the general rules governing relations.
● The Spread of Democratic Values: The 17th century saw various attempts made by monarchs to
establish the principle of the Divine Right of Kings. In the 18th century, this was no longer possible.
● Revolutions
o French Revolution: Erupted in 1789, ushered in a new order of society by putting an end to
the age of feudalism. It brought far reaching changes to not only French society but also
societies throughout Europe. Ideas of Liberty, Fraternity and Equality which form a part of
Preamble to Indian Constitution owe their origin to French revolution.
o American Revolution: American war of Independence gave way to establishment of
democracy in American society. The American War of Independence enormously contributed
to the social changes a major area of interest of sociology.
o Commercial Revolution: It refers to a series of events between 1450 to approximately 1800.
These events signaled to a shift from the largely subsistence and stagnant economy of
medieval Europe to a more dynamic and worldwide system.
▪ For example: East India Company having monopoly over trade in tea.
o Scientific Revolution: The Renaissance period from 14th-16th CE saw the rise of scientific
and rational inquiry to bust the myths created by orthodoxy. People started believing in
scientific explanations and philosophers began to establish credibility of sociology as a
science. For example, with advancement in biology, sociologists like Comte, Spencer gave an
Organismic analogy.
o Glorious Revolution: Power began to pass from the King to the Prime Minister. As a result,
the writings of philosophers such as Voltaire and Rousseau gained popularity and were
instrumental in spreading the idea that all people had a right to freedom and equality.
● Intellectual influences
o Galileo Galilei: The Italian astronomer and mathematician is famous for having discovered
the moons of Jupiter. He publicly defended the view that the Earth travelled round the Sun
(Heliocentric view) against the religiously-sanctioned geocentric view
o David Hume: He was a famous Scottish philosopher of the Enlightenment. He published A Treatise
of Human Nature. His writings are famous for their direct attacks on religious belief. One of his
claims is that human beings can never know for certain that one event is the cause of another.

o Immanuel Kant: He started "Copernican Revolution" in thought because his most important
idea was that what we know is not based on how things are in the outside world, but on how
people think.
o Thomas Hobbes: Contributions of Hobbes include the recognition of the existence of the
individual and individual rights along with the concepts of rationality, self-interest,
competitiveness, and calculation as individual attributes.
▪ Example: According to Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651), the state of nature was one in which
there were no enforceable criteria of right and wrong. the authority of the sovereign is
absolute
o John Locke: He had a more optimistic view of human nature than did Hobbes, looking on
humans as good, rational, social, cooperative and tolerant, at least in a state of nature. He
believed in a certain original equality of all individuals, male and female, in the state of nature,
where everyone had a right to autonomy and freedom.
For example, Locke’s theory of Natural rights (Right to life, property, freedom) was responsible for
introducing rationality among humans.
o Jean Jacques Rousseau: Zeitlin views Rousseau as a forerunner of sociology because he
understands the notion of culture – what people acquire from society. He was one of the first to
discuss inequality in society and he argued that change could occur in a way that would overcome
some of the inequalities.
Example: Rousseau's citizenship was more organic and less individualistic than Locke's. All rights,
including property rights, were subordinated to the popular will when natural liberty was exchanged
for political liberty.
o Mary Wollstonecraft: She did not view women as different than men by nature, attributing the
observed differences to “socially constructed gender roles.” She placed strong emphasis on reason
and argues that women are rational beings, and just like men, should be allowed an equal
opportunity to develop their rational and moral capacities.
o Saint Simon: Saint Simon viewed the historical transformation of European society as the result
of forces that were maturing in the womb of the older order. The growth of science and the
emergence of an industrial commercial bourgeoisie, the protestant ethic and the critical
philosophical movement to the Enlightenment had all contributed to undermine the Catholic
Church and the unity of the medieval society.
▪ Example: Comte de Saint-Simon, insisted that social reform can be achieved only when
scientific or “positive” data have been collected
o Auguste Comte: The works of Comte was thus a great synthesis in the history of human thought,
bringing together contributions in Moral and Political Philosophy, Philosophy of History
Epistemology and methods of particular sciences.
▪ Example: Society evolves through theosophical→ metaphysical--. Scientific stages
Thus, it is the view of many observers that the Enlightenment constitutes a critical development especially
in the later development of sociology. In this sense, sociology retained some aspects of old structure
(Conservative aims of peace and harmony) but also accommodated the new currents of the time(scientific
method of study).

2. (b) Explain the different types of non-probability sampling techniques. Bring out the conditions
of their usage with appropriate examples.
Approach
• Intro : Define non-probability sampling
• Body : Explain the different types of non-probability sampling techniques
• Conclusion : Highlight the significance of non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique that takes into account factors other than randomness,
such as the availability, closeness to the study subject's location, or subject matter expertise.
Features
• Nature: It makes no claim for representativeness, as every unit does not get the chance of being
selected. It is the researcher who decides which sample units should be chosen.
• Purpose: They are usually used for qualitative exploratory analysis
• Usage: In many research situations, particularly those where there is no list of persons to be
studied (e.g., widows, alcoholics, migrant workers, etc.) probability sampling is difficult and
inappropriate to use. In such research, non-probability sampling is the most appropriate one
Types of non-probability sampling techniques:

● Convenience sampling: It is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are selected
from the population only because they are conveniently available to the researcher.
o Example: To collect insight into people’s shopping patterns, researcher decides to stand
outside a major shopping mall in his area for a week, stopping people as they exit and asking
them if they are willing to answer a few questions about their purchases.
o Advantages: Collect data quickly, inexpensive to create samples, easy to do research, low
cost, readily available sample
o Disadvantages: Sample population may not be representative, chances of biases
● Consecutive sampling: The researcher selects a sample or group of people, conducts research
over a period, collects results, and then moves on to another sample.
o Example: Companies/ brands stop people in a mall or crowded areas and hand them
promotional leaflets to purchase a luxury car. A few of them agree to stay back and respond
to the questions asked by the promotion executive.
o Advantages: Ensure more representative sample, convenient and less time consuming
o Disadvantages: Sampling bias, takes a lot of time in designing and redesigning the survey

● Snowball sampling: This sampling system works like the referral program. Once the researchers
find suitable subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a considerably
good size sample.
o Example: Researcher while conducting research on one drug addicts can ask about the
contacts of other drug addicts
o Advantages: It's quicker to find samples, cost effective, easy to sample hesitant subjects
o Disadvantages: sampling bias and margin of error, lack of cooperation
● Purposive (judgemental) sampling: This is also called judgmental sampling, because it relies on
the judgment of the researcher to select the units (e.g., people, cases, or organizations studied).
o Example: Suppose a researcher wants to collect feedback from students on the pedagogical
methods in their school. The researcher will select the brightest students who can provide
relevant information for systematic investigation.
o Advantages: Opportunity to create generalizations from the data, saving time and money
while collecting data.
o Disadvantages: Extremely prone to researcher bias, participants in purposive sampling can
also manipulate the data being collected.
● Quota sampling: It involves selecting a predetermined number or proportion of units, called a
quota. Quota should comprise subgroups with specific characteristics (e.g., individuals, cases, or
organizations) and should be selected in a non-random manner.
o Ex: A cigarette company wants to find out what age group prefers what brand of cigarettes in
a particular city. They apply survey quota on the age groups of 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+.
o Advantages: Accurately represents the entire population, saves time, convenient
o Disadvantages: only the pre-determined traits of the population are taken into account,
impossible to determine if a sampling error has occurred.
Thus, in the research method sampling plays an important role. Researchers can mitigate the
disadvantages of nn-probability sampling by describing their choices in the methodology section of their
dissertation.
2. (c) Discuss social mobility in open and closed system.

• Intro : Define social mobility
• Body :
• Elaborate the difference between open and closed system
• Write nature of Mobility in open and closed systems :
• Conclusion : Write a balanced conclusion
As per Pritrim Sorokin in his work Social Mobility, 1927, Social mobility means transition of individuals
or groups from one position in the social hierarchy to another. An open stratification system is based on
achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes. Closed class systems are
defined as where people can do little or nothing to change their social standing.

Close system Open system

No/Limited mobility is there in closed systems. Various means of social mobility are available.
For example, before the 20th century, gender For example, The American Dream talks about
based stratification system in Europe was going from the log cabin to the White House on
extremely rigid and women could not own the basis of hard work and merit.
property, vote etc no matter what.
Closed system is not flexible. For example, the
Open system is quite flexible. For example, in an
caste system used to define occupation of aopen system of modern state, one can perform any
person and was not flexible. job one is qualified for.
Stratification is based on birth. Race based
Open system is not based on birth but is based on
stratification is usually decided on perceived
individual ability. For example, in a competitive
biological characteristics. exam, seats are allocated as per rank, not birth.
Feature of pre-industrialized societies Feature of industrialized societies
Individual gets ascribed status Individuals are required to achieve their status in
this system
Example: Caste system, Gender system, race Example: Classsystem
system
Nature of Mobility in open systems:

• Factors of mobility: Fox & Miller studied mobility in terms of movement of blue collar workers
to white collar occupations. They found that five factors when present simultaneously make for
the highest mobility:
1. High economic growth.
2. Expansion of education access.
3. Urbanization.
4. Political stability.
5. Achievement orientation.
Other factors include education, democratic institutions, occupation, law and constitution, migration,
technology etc.
• Absolute v/s Relative mobility: In his mobility study conducted in Britain, Goldthorpe came to
the conclusion that absolute mobility—movement from lower ranks to higher ranks—is
exceptionally rare.
• Vertical mobility: According to empirical research by Davis Glass in British culture, there is both
upward and downward mobility to and from the middle class and lower class, but no downward
mobility among the elite because of "elite self-recruitment."
• Changes in the environment: it could lead to both upward and negative mobility. Natural
catastrophes cause social mobility downward. Favourable alterations, like plentiful rain and
pleasant weather, encourage economic activity and agriculture, which boost wealth.
o Example: Small Island countries are lower in hierarchy than developed nations because of
greater impact of climate disasters on them

• Lipset – Zetterberg Thesis’: Lipset upheld that industrialization led to high mobility rates in
England and it is true for the rest of the world as well.
• Differences in mobility: Duncan and Blau in their study of America found that mobility is higher
among blue collar workers and white collar professionals and they attributed it to high levels of
popular education in the United States.
• Contest mobility: In the instance of contest mobility, an individual or a group actualizes
movement via their own efforts and successes.
o Example: Turner claims that contest mobility is a defining aspect of American society.
Similarly, a person in India who works in government.
Nature of Mobility in closed system:

● Westernisation: It has influenced ‘caste system’ and the lessening rigidity may be assigned to
the impact of Westernization. It has induced several ‘social reform movements.’ Usually, the
westernized ones live minimally in the universe of caste and maximally within the universe of
class.
● Sponsored mobility: It is awarded or offered by either already established higher social groupings
or the government/society at large in terms of predefined criteria, as opposed to the strivings and
efforts of the depressed categories.
For instance: A man's social position changes when he inherits his wife's possessions after the couple
gets married. Elite self-recruitment is the process through which members of powerful and rich groups
are chosen from among their own progeny.
• Sanskritization: As Veblen has highlighted in his book ‘Theory of Leisure Class’, individuals
always seek to be well thought in the eyes of their fellow men. This desire comes to application
through sanskritization (process of changing one’s caste group by emulating the practises,
lifestyles of higher varna/caste)
o Example- Kayastha of Bengal declared themselves as Rajputs because they wanted to come
closer to the Mughal elite.
• Dominant caste: Srinivas illustrate the fluidity of caste system. According to him castes even
ritually lower in hierarchy can have dominant position by virtue of their numbers, educational
achievement and land resources.
• Social Movements: Social movements also help in collective mobility. They motivate the group
as a whole to change their ascriptive position.
o Example- Dalit movements in India, Apartheid movement in South Africa
• Legal change: Law and constitution also plays an important role in bringing changes in the closed
systems.
o Ex- Positive discrimination for the deprived, acts like Prohibition of Untouchability Act 1955
• Migration: People have migrated from rural-urban areas to change their caste position through
new work opportunities. Urban areas offer them new horizons through education. This leads to
horizontal mobility which Anthony Giddens defines as lateral mobility involving geographical
movement between neighbourhoods, towns or regions.

Thus, no society is completely closed or completely open. Every society has established criteria - which
might be proper manners, family lineage, education, racial affiliation, etc., which must be satisfied before
people can move to a higher social level.
3. (a) What are the shortfalls of positivist philosophy that gave rise to the non-positivist methods of
studying social reality? (20 marks)
Approach
• Intro: Define positivism and non-positivism
• Body:
o Elaborate features of positivistic philosophy
o Write shortfalls of Positivistic Philosophy
• Conclusion: mention non-positivist methodologies and significance of positivism
Introduction
Positivism is a method of studying society which focuses on using scientific data, such as experiments,
statistics, and qualitative results, to shed light on how society actually works. Positivism arose with the
birth of Sociology as early sociologists were inspired by natural sciences to develop a science of society.
According to non-positivists social world is based upon uniqueness of human society in terms of meaning,
symbols and motives.
Features of positivistic philosophy

● Natural Sciences: Positivists hold that sociology can and should research the social world using
the same techniques and procedures as "natural" sciences like biology and physics.
o Example: Herbert spencer’s theory of organismic analogy led to functionalist approach
● Scientific Methods: Sociologists should eventually be able to identify the laws that govern
societies and social behaviour by using "scientific" methods, just as scientists have done with the
laws that govern the physical world.
o Example: Durkheim concretely used for the first time scientific methods in social research in
his study of suicide.

● Quantitative Techniques: Positive researchers employ quantitative techniques including

organized questionnaires, official data, and social surveys. For Positivist study, statistical and
numerical data are essential.
o Example: questionnaire, calculating percentages, t-tests, comparative method, sampling,
multivariate analysis etc.
● Objectivity: These techniques also permit the researcher to maintain a low level of
involvement in the research process; as a result, the researcher's beliefs should not influence
the findings of the study or the body of knowledge.
● Cause and Effect: Positivists try to find causal relationships to explain social phenomena.
o For example, Durkheim pointed out certain factors which lead to suicide in society- male
gender, unmarried etc.
● Theory Building: They try to generalise sociological phenomena to build grand theories.
o Ex, Comte’s evolutionary theory of society from theological-> metaphysical->
positivistic.
Shortfalls of Positivistic Philosophy

● Issues with Objectivity:
o Habermas argues that value freedom is not possible in the research and positivists lose sight
of actors reducing them to passive entities.
o Critical Theorists argue that ethical neutrality and value neutrality is not desirable. Positivism
is encouraging nascism and fascism.
o According to post-Positivist Elvin Gouldner "Value neutrality is an elusive goal in Sociology
as investigators have to deal with multilayered truths".
o Alfred Schutz argue that humans create their world through common sense, feelings and
values so a sociologist must respect these.
o Howard Becker says that depriving Social sciences of values will be the same as taking soul
away from the disciplines.
o Gouldner argues that Positivists' cold objectivity is essentially an expression of alienation,
that is, the alienation of the sociologist from his/her own self.
● Issues with facts and Truth
o Harkhiemer argues that Truth is subject to change and not always quantifiable.
o Peter Berger Burger says facts never fall from the sky but develop in particular context.
o Critical Theorists argue that Positivists are not covering the hidden truth.
o Dilthey indicates that a facts based approach explores only one dimension as it ignores cultural
and ideological dimension.
● Issues with Scientific Methods in Sociology
o Giddens argues that nature and human society are two different realms of enquiry. Nature is
not a human production, but society is being perpetually created, renewed and altered by
human agents.
● Issues with Generalisations

o Scholars argue unlike nature, society consists of self-reflexive agents who think, argue,
contest, and through their practices and actions transform the world. Hence society cannot
be subject to abstract/universal generalisations.
Origin of non-positivist methods in Shortfalls of Positivistic Philosophy

• Scientific to contextual facts: Phenomenologists like Peter Berger argued that, facts never appear
out of thin air; rather, they emerge within a specific environment.
• Inductive to deductive methodolody: Gradually, it was also recognised that a deductive method
would be more beneficial in sociology because it is highly challenging to gather data regarding
abstract phenomena.
• Facts to meanings: Additionally, positivism was seen as a basic misinterpretation of reality. Later
non-positivist methodologies favoured the analysis of phenomena in terms of the meanings that
the actors ascribed to them.
o Example: Weber advocated focusing on social action rather than social facts.
o Example: According to Alfred Schulz, people build their environment using logic, moral
principles, presumptions, and common sense.
• Singular to multiple layers: Adorno suggests that there are various strata to social life. Positive
thinkers concentrate on just one or two layers. Sociologists need to think critically to examine
many levels.
• Controversies to Uncovering hidden truth: The formation of "scientific social theories,” like
racial superiority, that have negative consequences (extermination of jews, blacks), may result
from an overemphasis on positivist sociology. Communist nations suffered greatly as a result of
scientific Marxism.
o Example: Positivist sees exploitation of women because of biological differences while non-
positivists like Mead saw it in terms of gender roles.

Shortfalls of Positivistic Philosophy gave rise to non-positivist methods such as Phenomenology,

Ethnomethodology, Symbolic Interactionism etc which attempt to understand social reality in terms of
interactions of and meaning attached by social actors to their actions. However, despite criticisms,
Positivism had a tremendous impact on sociology and in some ways helped establish it as a discipline.
3. (b) Critically examine how Durkheim and Merton explicate anomie. (20 marks)
• Introduction : Briefly introduce Durkheim's and Merton's theory
• Body
o Explain their theoretical viewpoints through differences between their theories
o Write criticism of Durkheim's theory of anomie
o Write criticism of Merton's theory of anomie
• Conclusion : Highlight the contemporary relevance of the anomie theories
Introduction
Durkheim considered anomie to be an abnormal form of the division of labour where there was too little
regulation to encourage cooperation between different social functions. However, anomie, according to
Robert Merton, is not just about unrestrained ambitions but also about a broken connection between
cultural ideals and acceptable means of achieving them.
Points of Differences
Basis Durkheim Merton
Work Suicide (1897) ‘Social Structure and Anomie, 1938’.
Anomie is a pathological state of A situation in which there is a

normlessness or lack of regulation. discrepancy between culturally
Definition defined goals and structural means
available to achieve them’.
It is a structural phenomena
● Absence of regulation: The • The structure of society itself

anomic division of labour is a way produces deviance rather than
of saying that there is no control in psychological factors or
a society that values uniqueness personality types.
Cause of and doesn't like to tell people what ● Divergence: Anomie is the result
Anomie to do. of the divergence between the
● Pathological Division of labour: social objectives recognised as
An increasing division of labour legitimate and the limited access to
weakens the sense of identification the means necessary to achieve
with the wider community and these objectives.

thereby weakens constraints on ● Discrepancy: This discrepancy

human behaviour. between goals and means varies
● Disintegration: These above from class to class, but is possible
conditions lead to social in all strata. The discrepancy
“disintegration”—high rates of results in a disorientation of the
egocentric behaviour, norm individual and causes
violation, and consequent de- psychological stress as well as
legitimation and distrust of social conflicts.
authority.
● Situation of crisis: According to
Durkheim, contemporary society
is always prone to anomie, but
social and economic crises bring it
to the forefront.
● Degradation: He addresses how
the division of labour degrades the
worker, the potential for repetitive
routine, and the worker's actions
that resemble those of a machine.
Anomie is a temporary stage. It occurs Anomie is ever present in society as

when society is transitioning from one some degree of structural strain is
Time period set of values to another and there is a always there.
lack of value consensus during this
transition.
Always negative 1. Structural Strain arises which leads

to deviance
Consequences
2. Deviance can be both positive or
negative
Durkheim initially believed that In order to be able to cope with this

organic solidarity would develop pressure, individual recourse is
spontaneously and would foster made to one of the following 5
functional specialisation and behavioural patterns:
interdependence through the ● Conformity: Acceptance of
Remedy emergence of a collective conscience. cultural goals and adaptation to
social change
● Innovation: Acceptance of
cultural goals, non-recognition of
legal means to achieve the goals.

● Ritualism: Lowering / abandoning

the cultural goals and maintaining
legal means to achieve them.
● Retreatism: Rejection of cultural
goals and legal means
● Rebellion: Combating the
objectives and the means to change
social structures.
In Rules of Sociological Method, he The ‘American Dream” entails

argues that crime is not inevitable and material success, freedom, wealth,
is also functional. But when its rate status etc. But structural means
Example
become unusually high, it turns (education, talent, hard work,
dysfunctional ambition, drive) don't allow everyone
to achieve these cultural goals.
Criticism of Durkheim's theory of anomie

● Incorrect Assumptions: Durkheim thought that a healthy division of labour was beneficial to
both society and individual. However, it may also be suggested that the division of labour could
equally result in anomie.
o Example: A developed division of labour can be detrimental to the worker and to society
because it removes skill, thus motivation from the workforce, and may result in deviant
behaviour such as refusal to work, or even strikes.
● Deterministic: The notion that anomie was a result of people having aspirations that exceeded
the opportunities available to them is also problematic. This statement suggests a certain degree
of determinism about the structure of society and the causal links to deviant behaviour.
● Irrelevance: Today, neither Durkheim's direct reference to the beginning of industrialization nor
his idea that everyone in society has a moral compass seem to fit with the times.
Criticism of Merton’s Theory

● Utilitarian: According to Merton's utilitarian theory of anomie, people commit crimes because
they have no other options, In this context, Merton discusses financial crimes like robbery and
burglary but not violent crimes like rape or murder.

● Overemphasis on working class crime: Some critics contend that Merton overemphasised
working-class crime and undervalued middle- or white-class crime.
● Different Responses: Cloward and Ohlin argue that Merton does not answer the question of
why people react differently in stressful situations. (Why does someone become a ritualist or
innovator?)
● Overlooks social interaction: Albert Cohen through his subculture theory criticizes Merton for
overlooking social interaction and group processes.
● Over emphasis on social classes: One critique of the strain theory is that it overemphasizes the
role of social class in crime and deviance.
Today, deviance and crime has taken a new spin – globalisation has widened the rich-poor income gap,
stratifying societies into more distinct classes, which may increase the relevance of functionalism, and
even conflict theories of deviance and crime.
3. (c) Suggest measures to minimise the influence of the researcher in the process of collecting data
through focus group discussion. (10 marks)
Approach
• Intro : Define focus group discussion
• Body : Write the ways in which Influence of the researcher can be minimised
• Conclusion : Highlight the significance of focus group technique
Introduction
A focus group discussion (FGD) is a way to gather together people from similar backgrounds or
experiences to discuss a specific topic of interest. The group of participants is guided by a moderator (or
group facilitator) who introduces topics for discussion and helps the group to participate in a lively and
natural discussion amongst themselves. Robert Merton popularised the FGD method.
Example: According to a number of studies, the focus group method has been used in HIV/AIDS research
to "give a voice" to marginalised communities and facilitate a better understanding of the issues that at-
risk populations experience.

Influence of the researcher in the process of collecting data can be minimised through:
● Double-blind method: It ensures that when neither the participants nor the researchers involved
in a study know who's been assigned to the control and treatment groups. It increases the validity
of a study by helping minimize experimenter and participant biases.
● Moderation: Research should act like a moderator to direct the discussion in desired direction of
research and he or she should not distract the group to respond as per his likings and expectations.
● Reviewing: Replication of research and peer review of material submitted for publication are two
common methods used to encourage the highest possible degree of objectivity.
● Training: One of the key requirements for a successful focus group discussion is a skilled and
well-trained group facilitator and team members.
● Careful selection of topics: Restricting participants to the topic of researcher's interest constraints
creativity and encourages conformity and strategic biases so topics should be selected carefully.
● Environment: researcher should be able to build rapport by creating a warm, supportive and
comfortable environment to foster open and honest dialogue among diverse groups and
individuals.
● Flexibility: To adapt to the flow of the discussion, remain open to changes in the discussion guide,
adjust to participants’ requests during the group and adjust physical behaviours and activity around
the room.
● Objectivity: Ability to remain impartial by getting involved while maintaining verbal and non-
verbal objectivity.
● Analysis of data: Ensure a clear pathway between the data obtained, coding and subsequent
analysis of data. It should be tape-recorded with consent and interpreted in multiple cycles.
Focus group discussion can be utilised within a suite of techniques in a multi-method research design, as
a principal research method in its own right, or as a form of participatory action research to empower
participants and promote social change (Wilkinson)
4 (a) What characterises degradation of work in capitalist society according to Marx? (20 marks)
Approach
• Intro : Briefly introduce about the capitalist society
• Body : Elaborate causes of degradation of work in capitalist society
• Conclusion : Write the solution as provided by Marx
Introduction
Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their
operation for profit. Capitalist society is characterised by unequal relations between the two classes -
bourgeoisie and proletariat. The relationship is of mutual dependence and antagonistic cooperation.
Causes of degradation of work in capitalist society according the Marx

● Alienation: It is the separation or estrangement of human beings from some essential aspect of
their nature or from society, often resulting in feelings of powerlessness or helplessness. The
consequences of Alienation are

o Unutilised Potential: The structure of manufacturing forces employees to focus on little details
rather than allowing them to utilise their full potential, turning them into crippled monstrosities.
o Disruptive: Due to capitalism, the natural relationship between the head and the hand has
been disrupted, and the majority of work is now done by the hand.
o Boredom: The boredom of repeatedly performing a specialised task. People are no longer
creative, and their only goal in life is to own and own things.
o Commodification: Workers, frequently strangers, are compelled to work side by side
since capitalism reduces labour to a commodity to be traded on the market rather than a
social interaction.
o Reduced Productivity: Individuals perform less and less like human beings as they are
reduced in their work to animals, beasts of burden, or inhuman machines.
● Commodity Fetishism: The term describes how the social relationships of production and
exchange among people take the form of relationships between things (money and
commodities) under capitalism. The consequences of commodity fetishism are:
o Fetishism: Commodities are associated with Godly figures or celebrities, removing any
trace of social relations of labour attached to them, making them desirable as an object of
envy among consumers.
o Invisibility of producer: This situation occurs because in a capitalist society the real
producers of commodities remain largely invisible. Consumers only approach their
products through the relations which the act of exchange establishes between the products.
o Example of perfume industry
▪ Though a luxury product even in feudal society, the interaction between the
customers and artisans was direct. It was an ancestral occupation and artisans took
pride in the intrinsic work put into the making of these fragrant products.
▪ But in a consumerist society, the process of production and the exploitation of
labourers are forgotten and replaced by the brand and the price tag of the product.
● Unpaid labour: Marx argued that the ultimate source of profit, the driving force behind
capitalist production, is the unpaid labor of workers. So for Marx, exploitation forms the
foundation of the capitalist system.
o Example: hiring interns instead of permanent employees in corporate world
● Surplus: And it's not only industrial capitalists whose profits derive from surplus value, or
unpaid labor. The "rentier" classes, such as finance capital and landlords, take their cut from
the wealth extracted from the labor of workers.
● Reserve army of labour: a Marxist term used to describe the ranks of the unemployed who
– through the absence of any meaningful choice – are prepared to work for very low wages in
temporary jobs. The existence of a reserve army of labour serves the interests of the
bourgeoisie and exploits members of the proletariat.
o Example: contract employees are more than permanent employees
● Exploitation: Workers have to struggle to decrease the severity of the exploitation they face
under capitalism. But as long as the capitalist system exists, workers will be exploited, and
their unpaid labor will remain the source of the profits that are the lifeblood of the system.

o Example: Foxconn's 1.4-square-mile flagship factory near Shenzhen used to assemble

most iPhones. The Guardian reported 4,50,000 workers in the vast complex. In 2010,
numerous workers committed suicide due to exploitation.
Thus, according to Marx, only when workers control the means of production for their own benefit can
exploitation and degradation of work be abolished and only then will "the expropriators be expropriated."
4. (b) Social stratification is claimed to contribute to the maintenance of social order and stability
in society. Critically assess. (20 marks)
Approach
• Intro : Briefly introduce social stratification and functional theories of social stratification
• Body :
• Explain theory of stratification by Parsons
• Explain theory of stratification by Devis and Moore
• Write criticisms of the theory of stratification
• Highlight the significance of functional theories of stratification
Introduction
Sutherland and Maxwell define social stratification as ‘a process of differentiation which places some
people higher than the others’. Example- slavery, estate system, caste and class.
Functional theories of social stratification such as those of Parsons and Devis and Moore establish that
social stratification exists in society because of its benefits to society. All societies have various parts or
structures and these parts function harmoniously and interdependently.
Theory of stratification by Parsons

● Social Order: The central point of Parsons' analysis of social systems is the problem of order. He
believed that all social systems came into existence because people within this system wanted
order and stability.
● Value Consensus: All members of a society agree that the given values are the best means through
which stability can be maintained in their society. In this way values are not only shared beliefs,
but they emerge out of consensus of the members of that society. The values which are important
in a society varies from society to society.
● Reward System: In any society, those performing according to the social values are better
rewarded. The type of rewards, according to Parsons, depends on what the values of that society
defile as superior.
o For example, traditionally among the Rajputs high value was placed on bravery and
valour. Hence any person displaying these qualities was better rewarded and given a higher
rank.
● Differences: Parsons placed emphasis on the differences that existed among people. These
differences were in consonance with the value system of that society and hence was necessary for
the stability of that society.

o Example: achievement-oriented value system legitimize differences between educated and

non-educated class
● Conflict Resolution: Conflicts may occur between those who are rewarded and those who are not
rewarded, but this does not threaten the existing system because it is kept in check by the value
system.
● Functional Prerequisites: Social stratification helps in fulfilling functional prerequisites of
society.
o Example: caste-based stratification ensures that Brahmins perform the role of imparting
education to others.
Theory of Stratification by Davis and Moore

● Central Point: That quintessence of the structural-functional theory of stratification is that social
hierarchy is the result of the inevitability of differentiation of roles and duties.
● Inevitable: The differentiation of roles and duties is inevitable for the survival of mankind. As
such, stratification becomes an inevitable phenomenon of social life.
● Necessity: Davis and Moore thus show the relationship between stratification and the rest of the
social order. The assumption behind this theory is that no society is “classless” or unstratified,
hence the universal necessity of social stratification.
● Important Roles: Certain tasks in society are more valuable than others (for example, doctors or
lawyers). Qualified people who fill those positions are rewarded more than others. Hence, social
stratification is a mechanism of role allocation whereby more important positions are filled by
more talented people.
● Functional: Therefore, social inequality among different strata in the amounts of scarce and
desired goods and the amounts of prestige and esteem they receive is both positively functional
and inevitable in any society.
Criticism of the Functionalist Theories of Stratification

● Half Picture: Parsons disregarded the likelihood that individuals would question the status quo
of values and that society would change. He also di
● Insufficient: Critics say that the functional analysts' theories, which are rather neat and
simple, don't capture the complexity of the real world well enough.
● Illegitimate teleologies: Structure functionalist theories have a serious logical flaw, according to
Jonathan Turner: illegitimate teleologies. They frequently mistake cause and effect for one another.
● Individualized Inequalities: According to Beck and Baudrillard, functional stratification is no
longer viable because today's inequalities are individualised and there are no discernible strata.
● Melvin Tumin’s Critique of Theory of Social Stratification
o Rewards: Many occupations of little prestige or economic reward are also vital to society. He
states that some labour forces of unskilled workmen are as important as some labour forces of
engineers.
o Functional Importance: There is no objective way of measuring functional importance of
positions.

o Ignored the influence of power: Additionally, Davis and Moore, according to Tumin,
disregarded the impact of power on the unequal distribution of rewards.
o Barrier: Social stratification and act as a barrier to the motivation and recruitment of talent.
This is apparent in close systems such as caste and racial stratification.
o Hostility: Tumin comes to the conclusion that stratification cannot, by its very nature, fulfil
the roles that Davis and Moore assigned to it. The disparate rewards foster animosity.
Stratification divides people rather than bringing them together.
o Insufficient Explanation: The Davis-Moore thesis does not explain why a media personality
with little education, skill, or talent becomes famous and rich on a reality show or a campaign
trail. The thesis also does not explain inequalities in the education system or inequalities due
to race or gender.
Thus, the Structural- functionalist perspective seeks to explain social stratification in terms of its
contribution to the maintenance of social order and stability in society. Parsons considered his theory to
be analytic and not falsifiable. The Davis-Moore thesis, though open for debate, was an early attempt to
explain why stratification exists. Stratification may be dysfunctional in some instances, but its very
existence in society proves that it is functional too.
4. (c) What is reliability? Explain the different tests available to social science researcher to
establish reliability. (10 marks)
Approach
• Intro : Define Reliability
• Body : Elaborate tests available to establish a reliability
• Conclusion : Highlight the importance of establishing reliability
Introduction
Reliability is the degree to which a measurement instrument gives the same results each time that it is
used, assuming that the underlying thing being measured does not change.
Example: An example of an unreliable measurement is people guessing your weight. Quite likely, people
will guess differently, the different measures will be inconsistent, and therefore, the “guessing” technique
of measurement is unreliable.

Tests available to social science researcher to established reliability

● The Test-Retest Procedure: The same test is administered here two or more times. If the results
of the test are similar each time researcher give it to the sample group, that shows research method
is likely reliable.
o Example: To measure confidence researcher might develop a questionnaire with a list of ten
statements. Then, a subject is given two of these ten assertions at two distinct times.
Researcher can assume that the questions accurately assessed the subject's responses if the
respondent provides the same answers both times.
● Alternate Forms Procedure: In the alternate forms procedure (also called parallel forms
reliability), two tests are given. This strategy involves giving the same group of people multiple
types of tests to determine if the results stay the same when using different research methods.
o Example: Researcher may make two sets of five confidence-measuring statements. Each of
the five-statement surveys would be administered to subjects. If the subject responds similarly
to both questions, researcher can believe that he accurately measured the notion.
● Internal Consistency Procedure: Here, the test is only given once, and the grade is determined
by how similarly the responses are on average. it involves making sure that internal research
methods or parts of research methods deliver the same results.
o Example: Each response to a ten-statement confidence questionnaire, can be viewed as a
separate one-statement test. Reliability is determined by comparing the responses to each of
the ten assertions.
● Inter-rater Reliability Procedure: The inter-rater reliability testing involves multiple
researchers assessing a sample group and comparing their results. If most of the results from
different assessors are similar, it's likely the research method is reliable.

o Example: Multiple behavioral specialists may observe a group of children playing to

determine their social and emotional development and then compare notes to check for
inter-rater reliability.
Thus, the reliability and validity of a research is not established by any single study but by the pattern of
results across multiple studies. The assessment of reliability and validity is an ongoing process.
5. (a) Critically examine the relevance of Durkheim's views on religion in contemporary society.
Approach
• Intro : Introduce Durkheim's theory of religion
• Body : Explain the theory of religion
• Conclusion : Highlight the significance of Durkheim's theory of religion
Durkheim's theory of Religion is contained in his "Elementary form of religious life. He defined religion
as a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things. Religion is also a social fact which
performs the function of bringing people together. The origin of religion was seen in the primitive form
of religion called totemism.
Two components of Society:

● Sacred: These are the things which are set apart and forbidden connected to supernatural or
divine. There is a relationship of distance and fear with respect to these things.
o Example: Spritual places such as Church
● Profane: These are the things which are set apart from the sacred. It includes all the things which
people use in their daily lives.
o Example: Our daily routine, eating breakfast
● Relationship: Sacred and profane are two worlds apart and both are mutually exclusive, created
by society. Social obligations are represented in sacred terms and hence transformed into religious
duties for the stability of society. Hence, society is the subject as well as object of religion
o For example – marriage becomes a sacrament, to work become a symbol of pleasing of gods,
and death in battle becomes a gateway to heaven.
Functions of Religion as per Durkheim as found in contemporary society

● Collective Reality: Religious representations are collective representations which express
collective reality. For example, even today people wear religious markers like turban, ‘kara’ etc.
which are symbolic of a collective identity.

● Solidarity: Religion acted as a source of solidarity. For example, during COVID-19, many
religious organisations provided food, relief, and medicines to the needy.
● Meaning: Religion provides a meaning for life. This is reflected in the rise of sects and cults in
contemporary society to battle rising alienation and rootlessness.
● Social System: Religion is a critical part of the social system. Even today, in modern societies
like America religion influences culture, policies, habits etc- for e.g, abortion ban debate.
● Interaction: Religion provides another means of communication and gathering for individuals to
interact and reaffirm social norms. For example, today religious pilgrimage has emerged as a new
way to connect and meet people.
● Others: Religion provides social control, cohesion and purpose for people.
Criticism of Durkheim's views on religion

● One sided: Goldenweiser argued that Durkheim’s theory is one sided and psychologically
untenable. He argued that a “society possessing religious sentiment is capable of accomplishing
unusual things, but it can hardly produce that sentiment out of itself.”
● Secularism: Scholars point out that in modern heterogeneous societies, secularism is the binding
force not the religion.
● Emergence of religious surrogates: Religion does not seem to glue society together rather tear
it apart. This has led to the postulation of religious surrogates which form the same purpose of
religion and its totems in an increasingly secular world. For example, FIFA world cup acts as an
event of almost religion-like fervour and collectivism.
● Postmodernist view: Mestrovic (1997) argued that Durkheim's theory cannot be applied to
contemporary society as society is now too fragmented and diverse.
● Extremity: Edmund Leach pointed that profane and sacred are two extremes and all social actions
fall in between. In contemporary society, most things have become mundane- workplace, leisure,
clothing etc.
Certainly it seems that in our current world some of the features of traditional society that Durkheim calls
particular attention to have undergone a kind of revival. However, according to Bellah, Durkheim's theory
still provides for many a powerful insight into the collective rituals of people in modern societies.
5 (b). Discuss various theoretical perspectives on the family.

Approach
• Intro : Introduce different approaches to family
• Body :
• Explain functionalist perspective
• Explain conflict perspective
• Explain feminist perspective
• Explain marxist perspective
• Explain post-modernist
• Conclusion : Highlight the changes taking place in the family

Family has classically been regarded as a universal social institution which has stood the test of time.
Sociologists take different theoretical approaches to understanding the family as a social institution.
Ego’s kin
Functionalist Perspective on family

● Murdock's view: He suggested four essential functions of family - stable satisfaction of sex drive,
biological reproduction of next generation, socialisation of the young, meeting its members
economic needs.
● Parsonian view: Parsons’ functional fit theory is that as society changes, the type of family that
‘fits’ that society, and the functions it performs change. For example, the nuclear family emerged
with the onset of industrialisation. He suggested two core functions:-
▪ Primary Socialisation: The nuclear family is still responsible for teaching children the norms
and values of society known as Primary Socialisation.
▪ Stabilisation of adult personalities: The stabilisation of adult personalities refers to the
emotional security which is achieved within a marital relationship between two adults.
Conflict perspective on family

● Social Inequalities: Social inequality is a result of the family as a social institution. Families
contribute to perpetuating existing inequality because they pass on their wealth to their offspring
and because wealth levels among families vary greatly.
● Source of conflict: Family can also be a source of conflict for its own members. Although the
functional perspective assumes the family provides its members emotional comfort and support,
many families do just the opposite and are far from harmonious. David Cooper says it denies
individual freedom and self-development.
o Example: Families restricting girls to go for higher education

● Exploitation of women: Conflict theorists have seen the family as a social arrangement benefiting
men more than women.
o Example: Margaret Benston argues that Nuclear family is a valuable stabilizing force in
capitalist society because-
1. Emotional support of wife
2. Reproduction of labor power
Feminist perspective on family

● Fran Ansley's view: She argues women’s male partners are inevitably frustrated by the
exploitation they experience at work and women are the victims of this, including domestic
violence.
● Germaine Greer's view: She argues that the family continues to disadvantage women. She
focuses on looking at the role of women as wives, mothers and daughters.
● Sociology of motherhood: In most family structures, the mother is both a biological parent and a
primary caregiver. However, this limited role has increasingly been called into question. Both
feminist and masculist authors have decried such predetermined roles as unjust.
● Recognition of functions: Feminists recognize that sex, reproduction, socialization and economic
production ‘need’ to occur but not necessarily in ways that ‘exploit’ female labour and leave them
relatively powerless.
Marxist perspective on family

● Engels' view: The children of the rich grow up into wealth, while the children of the poor remain
poor. Thus the nuclear family benefits the Bourgeois more than the proletariat.
● Ideological apparatus: The family is described as an ideological apparatus – this means it
socialises people to think in a way that justifies inequality and encourages people to accept the
capitalist system as fair, natural and unchangeable.
o Example: family enables the ideology that good education is necessary for a good job to
generate a disciplined workforce for capitalist
● Family as a Unit of Consumption: Capitalists/business owners want to keep workers’ wages down so
they can make a profit, but to do so they must also be able to sell the workers goods i.e. they must create
demand for their products. The family builds demand for goods in a number of ways
Postmodernist perspective on family

● Variation in family structures: Family structures are incredibly varied and individuals have
much more freedom of choice in aspects of their lives which would have been relatively
constrained in the past i.e. lifestyles, personal relationships and family arrangements.
● Stacey's view: She identified a new type of family “the divorce-extended family” – members are
connected by divorce rather than marriage, for example ex in-laws, or former husband’s new partners.
● Tamara Hareven's view: She advocates the approach of life course analysis, that is that
sociologists should be concerned focusing on individual family members and the choices that they
make throughout life regarding family arrangements.

Thus, family as a social institution has been undergoing change. Both in its structure and functions
changes have taken place-for e.g., single parent family, LGBTQ+ family etc. Families today are extremely
diverse and multicultural through social influences from the media, education, and global improvements.
5. (c) Explain the implications of feminization of work in the developing societies.

Approach
• Intro : Define feminization of work
• Body :
• Elaborate implications of feminization of work – Positive and Negative
• Suggest some solutions to solve the challenges.
• Conclusion : Write a solution-oriented way forward
The feminization of work refers to the processes through which the composition of an occupation changes
such that the proportion of women exceeds the proportion of men. It also includes changing the nature of
the workplace and roles to be more exploitative, that is, with lower wages, less skills etc.
Positive Implications of feminization of work:

● Modernization Theory: It suggests that modernization leads to women’s emancipation from
traditional subordinated roles by integrating them with new job opportunities in the industrial and
service sectors.
o Ex: increasing standard of living requires the running income of both husband and woman
● Developmentalists perspective: Erosion of women’s role in the traditional sector forced them to
take up jobs in the informal sector, petty trading, domestic work etc. Besides, their domestic tasks
within the household resulted in the ‘double burden’ of work.
o Boserup (1970) analysed the changes that occurred in agricultural practices as society became
modernized and examined the differential impact of these changes on the work done by men
and women.
● Knowledge society: Getting women to work for money means giving them the chance to interact
with the outside world. This is especially important in a "knowledge society," which is a society
that thrives on the production and management of information.
● Social Movements: Gender inequalities at the workplace can lead to social movements and unite
the women against patriarchy.
o Example: Metoo movement
Negative Implications
● Clustering of Women in particular occupations: Women tend to ‘ghettoized’ in the jobs
involving personal services, textile, food processing or other activities that are extension of
their domestic duties.
o Example: Arlie Hochschild highlights the Need of women in pink collar jobs like
receptionist, air hostess for their emotional labor

• Power struggle: Karuna Ahmend also talks of ‘glass ceiling’- a qualified person wishing to
advance within the hierarchy of her organization is stopped at a lower level due to a
discrimination most often based on sexism.
o Example: A 2003 report by the federal Glass Ceiling Commission showed that only seven
to nine percent of upper management at Fortune 1000 firms were women.
• Formal-informal Gap: Number of women engaged in the informal economy, performing
officially unrecognized work has increased, while the number of women in the formal sector
has almost stagnated.
o Example: As per India Exclusion report, 2017, Homeworkers engage in home-based work
‘to pass their free time‘. This also limits the women’s ability to further unionise against
unjust work conditions.
• Workplace exploitation: Even if women are integrated into the formal economy, without the
state enforcing decent work conditions as International Labour Organization (ILO) standards
provide, there is no guarantee that women workers will be treated equally to their male
counterparts.
• Matilda Effect: Credits for inventions done by women inventors’ are taken away by their
male counterparts.
o Example: Rosalind Franklin, a British woman scientist, discovered a groundbreaking
image of the DNA structure that Watson and Crick used without giving her any due credit.
• Impact on working class: Feminisation of labour is not intended just to discriminate against
women workers; it is directed at reducing the economic space available to the working class
as a whole.
Way Forward
● Increasing access to formal economy: The State should make sure that women don’t end up
solely as casual labourers in the informal economy, but find sufficient access to the formal
economy.
● New perspectives: Policy-makers must stop viewing and treating women only in their traditional
roles and as care-givers, mothers and wives
● Realisation by women: It is very important that women realise their agency, and recognize that
they are very capable of speaking for themselves.
● Equal treatment: It is important to treat women as individual agents, with unmediated power
over resource management and ownership of assets, equal to the unmediated power of men.
• Laura M Purdy: Women should go for ‘baby strike’ in order to focus her energies at the
workplace.
• Laws: They have legitimate authority to nudge men’s behavior of patriarchy to a certain extent.
o Example: POSH Committee under The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace
(Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act.
• IEC: Awareness generation about the reality of gender inequality at the workplace should be
undertaken.
o Example: Indian women Blog talks about success stories of women.

• Financial: Women should be given financial autonomy to reduce dependence on men.

o Example: Women’s accounts in Jan Dhan Yojana.
o Example: Bina Agarwal argues for giving legal rights to property of agricultural land to
women farmers.
Women are entering any form of profession and feminizing the labor force, which was once restricted
and dominated by men. From exporting personal labor, entering the labor market, challenging the field
of science and engineering, and participating in the sports environment, the power and role of women in
the society have dramatically changed. Thus, state has to regulate the market, legislate social security
policies and press the market to implement them.
5. (d) Write a note on global trends of secularisation.

• Approach
• Intro : Write a scholarly definition of Secularization
• Body :
• Elaborate trends of secularization
• Explain the significance of religion in modern world
• Conclusion : Write a balanced conclusion
Secularization refers to the weakening importance of religion in a society. Wilson (1966) defined secularization
as “the process whereby religious thinking, practices and institutions lose social significance”.
Global trends of secularisation:

● Separation: Disengagement of Institutional religion from everyday life - education, politics, and
social welfare are no longer functions of religion. For example, in ancient India temples were the
centre of learning but now research institutions operate completely independent of such temples.
● Societalisation: Trend of arrival of bureaucratic organisations in closely knitted integrated
societies has been observed. Thus, religion is no longer the binding or organising force in the
community for performing collective tasks.
● Modernisation: Secularisation is associated with lower involvement of men with religious
institutions and less influence of religious institutions on people. Falling attendance in church is
an example of lesser participation in religion.
● Socialisation: Earlier, the medium of socialisation was attendance in church. Now-a-days
technology has replaced the medium of church. During the 20th century in Britain; Church
attendance dropped from 30% to 10%
● Individualisation: Secularisation included selectivity among individuals over religious norms,
values and authority. Robert Bellah argues that religion is increasingly an individual affair- calling
it ‘private religion’.
o Example: Small temples inside homes instead of going to public temple daily.

● Rationalisation: Individuals, especially women, are questioning the prescribed roles by religion.
Some older values like supernatural beliefs no longer exist.
o Weber argued that with the advent of industrialisation, people would start to look towards
science and rationality rather than religion and the supernatural.
● Desacralization: Supernatural forces are no longer deemed to control the world. Rational ideologies are
Increasing. Luckmann argued that with modernization, authority of religion is declining.
o Steve Bruce argued that modern Britain is becoming increasingly secular. In fact, Christianity will
decline past the point of no return and by 2030, many denominations will have become extinct.
● Pluralisation: Today's society is characterised by the existence of multiple faiths. Wilson says
Religion values are longer the values of the whole community. Berger says that religious diversity
is another cause in the trend towards secularisation.
● Self-realisation: Thomas Luckman in his The Invisible Religion, 1967, argued that religion is still
alive. Now religion is practised Individually for self-realisation.
However, religion is Important in various ways such as:

● Believing without belonging: Grace Davie disagrees with Steve Bruce and secularisation. He
argued that many of us may not belong to a religion but may still cling to religious belief. We are
‘believers’ but not ‘belongers’.
● Church as a medium of socialisation: Some statistics suggest that religion is still an important
medium of socialisation.
o British Social Attitudes Survey 1991 – only just over 8% of the British population attended
religious service. However, only 10% claimed to be atheists and 14% agnostics.
o European Values Study 1993: 71% of the UK population reported a belief in God, 64% a
belief in the existence of the soul.
● Religious Market Theory: Stark and Bainbridge argue that If there is an ample supply of religions
to choose from, people become more religious. Decline is not a universal trend, it is only present
in Europe and therefore decline (secularisation) is a feature of only modern Europe.
● Existential Security Theory: Norris and Englehart argue that poor countries with life threatening
risks such as famine and disease have less existential security and therefore they are more religious
as it meets the needs of security.
However, according to Haralambos, proving or disproving secularisation is tricky because of different
definitions of religiosity. As Norris and Englehart suggest, demand for religion is not constant but varies
within and between different societies. Thus, there might be trends of secularisation today but there are
also counter-currents of religious revivalism in new and different forms.
5 (e) Trace the trajectory of development perspectives on social change.

Approach
• Intro : Define social change
• Body : Explain different theories/perspectives on social change
• Conclusion : Highlight the changing developmental pattern

The term social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in human interactions and
interrelations. Society is a web of social relationships and hence social change means change in the system
of social relationships.
● Evolutionary Theories: Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies
gradually change from simple beginnings into even more complex forms.
o L.H Morgan believed that there were three basic stages in the process: savagery, barbarism
and civilization.
o Auguste Comte's ideas relating to the three stages in the development of human thought and
also of society namely-the theological, the metaphysical and the positive in a way represent
the three basic stages of social change.
o Herbert Spencer argued that society itself is an organism. He even applied Darwin's principle
of the survival of the fittest to human societies. He said that society has been gradually
progressing towards a better state. He argued that it has evolved from military society to
industrial society.
o Emile Durkheim identified the cause of societal evolution as a society's increasing moral
density. Durkheim viewed societies as changing in the direction of greater differentiation,
interdependence and formal control under the pressure of increasing moral density.
● Cyclical theories: Cyclical theories of social change focus on the rise and fall of civilizations
attempting to discover and account for these patterns of growth and decay.
o Toynbee: He has pointed out that history is a series of cycles of decay and growth. But each
new civilization is able to learn from its mistakes and to borrow from cultures of others.
o Sorokin: Instead of viewing civilization into the terms of development and decline he
proposed that they alternate or fluctuate between two cultural extremes: the sensate and
the ideational.
● Functional theories: Talcott Parsons stressed the importance of cultural patterns in controlling
the stability of a society. According to him, society has the ability to absorb disruptive forces while
maintaining overall stability.
● Conflict theories: Whereas the equilibrium theories emphasise the stabilising processes at work
in social systems the so-called conflict theories highlight the forces producing instability, struggle
and social disorganisation.
o According to Ralf Dahrendorf the conflict theories assume that every society is subjected at
every moment to change, hence social change is ubiquitous. Every society experiences at every
moment social conflict, hence social conflict is ubiquitous.
o Karl Marx along with Engel wrote in Communist Manifesto 'all history is the history of class
conflict.' Individuals and groups with opposing interests are bound to be at conflict.
o George Simmel too stressed the importance of conflict in social change. According to him
conflict is a permanent feature of society and not just a temporary event. It is a process that
binds people together in interaction.
Socio-demographic conditions are changing throughout the world—in the direction of greater
urbanization, higher levels of formal schooling, increasing commercialization, and ever higher levels of
technology—the influence of social change on developmental patterns is very significant.

6 (a) According to Mead the idea of self develops when the individual becomes self-conscious.
Explain.
Approach
• Intro : Introduce the idea of Mead
• Body :
• Features of Self
• Explain the process of development of self
• Conclusion : Highlight the importance of social interaction
George Herbert Mead was a social philosopher who discussed the connection between the self, the mind,
and society illustrated in “Mind, Self and Society”. He believed that society has an effect on the self and
mind( being self-conscious), and the self and the mind have an effect on society, that is, it is a two-way
reflexive relationship.
Features of Self:
• Subject or Object: Self has the unique ability to take oneself as an object as well as subject. As
a subject they evaluate themselves from the outside. As an object, self uses its internal mechanism
to monitor its surroundings.
• Social as A priori: Self is also preceded by social process just like the Mind.
o Example: Lower animals and human infants at birth do not have self because they have not
yet experienced social activity and social relationships.
• Developed Version: Once self is developed fully through social experiences, it can exist without
the need of social contact.
o Example: Robinson Crusoe has developed a self and he continued to retain it while living on
a deserted island.

• Dynamic: Self’ is greatly dynamic because –

1. It carries the capability to read the self of others.
2. It has capability to go for internal interaction between ‘I’ and ‘Me’
3. It has capability to communicate with ‘mind’
• I and Me: The ‘I’ is the immediate response of an individual to others. It is the incalculable,
unpredictable, and creative aspect of the self. While ‘Me’ is the social self where individuals
confirm societal values. As Mead says, “The ‘me’ is a conventional, habitual individual”.
Development of self:
• Causes for development of ‘I’ (Being self-conscious about oneself)
o Self-introspection: As our selves develop more and more, we begin to be able to examine our
own thoughts and behaviours as we would if we were examining other's actions.
o Reflexivity: Mead also says that we cannot directly experience our "selves." We can only do
so indirectly. For self development we have to have the ability to unconsciously put ourselves
in other people's shoes and act as they would act.
• Causes for development of ‘Me’(Being societal-conscious about oneself)
o Symbolic exchange: Social experience consists of the exchange of symbols. Mead
emphasised the human use of language and other symbols to convey meaning.
▪ Example: Vocal gestures like language. The word love would espouse the same response
in the maker and addressee.
o Social interactions: Mead believed that people develop self-images through interactions with
other people. He argued that the Self, which is the part of a person’s personality consisting of
self-awareness and self-image, is a product of social experience.
o The Generalized Others: It is the attitude of the entire community. This is important to the
self because it makes the individual view him/herself through the eyes of the social group and
not just through the discrete individual. This allows for abstract thinking and objectivity. the
“me” is the adoption of the generalized other
o Role taking: The process of role taking involves the individual taking on the role of another
by imaginatively placing himself in the position of the person with whom he is interacting. On
the basis of this interpretation he will make his response to the action of the other.
o Looking-glass self: Self-conceptions and self-feelings (e.g., pride or shame) are a
consequence of how people imagine others perceive and evaluate them. Within contemporary
symbolic interactionism, this process is called reflected appraisals and is the main process
emphasized in the development of the self.
• As a Process: Just like mind, even self does not exist as a thing in itself. Rather it is a process that
is developed in the course of interaction through two stages-
o Play Stage: It forms a ‘limited self’ as children learn to take the roles of ‘particular/discrete
others’. In this stage, children copy the behaviour of adults without understanding it.
▪ Example: A little boy might ‘help’ his parents vacuum clean the floor by pushing a toy
vacuum cleaner or even a stick around the room.
▪ Example: Child imitating the actions of a doctor

o Game Stage: The child here learns to take the roles of everyone involved in the game- that is
‘Generalized other’. He starts to pick up the attitude of the entire community.
• Interaction Between Two Facets of Self: Mead says that two parts of the self are in constant
interaction. The ‘I’ holds attitudes about “me”. and the me reflects the judgments of others towards
“I”. This dialogue is the basic part of the conscious and unconscious mental life of every
individual.
Thus, Mead’s view of human interaction sees man as both actively creating the social environment and
being shaped by it. The individual and society are regarded as inseparable for the individual can only
become human in a social context (development of self by being self conscious and conscious of society)
6. (b) Analyse the nature of transition from ideology to identity politics in India.
Approach
• Intro : Define identity politics and ideology
• Body :
• Give background of ideology politics in India
• Explain the transition from ideology to identity politics in India :
• Elaborate the consequences of identity politics
• Conclusion : Write a balanced solution oriented conclusion
Identity politics is politics in which groups of people having a particular racial, religious, ethnic, social,
or cultural identity tend to promote their own specific interests or concerns without regard to the interests
or concerns of any larger political group.
In politics, ideology refers to a group or system of particular concepts and ideas central to a political
theory. Ideology is the tool that the elite use to convince and control.

Ideology politics in India

● Before independence: Before India attained independence, the political aspirations of an
independent India were largely shaped by leaders and ideologues in support of claiming a larger
‘Indian’ identity for all Indians, with a strong emphasis on the proclamation of a unitary identity.
● Historical view: Throughout the life of our young nation, ideology has counted for much more than we
realise. The disputes and discussions during the freedom struggle were often ideologically driven.
o Example: Gandhiji believed in one India, where Hindus and Muslims could live in peace.
That idea was rejected by M A Jinnah and the proponents of the two-nation theory.
● Choices after independence: Even after Independence, our leaders made ideological choices.
India rejected the Marxist tyranny and the communist model of economy followed by the USSR.
India also rejected the totalitarian model followed by China.
Transition from ideology to identity politics in India:

Identity was not central to politics till late 1950’s. It emerged as a new concept as a consequence of
political and economic shifts in 1960.
● Language: After Independence in India, the political movements for the creation of new states
developed on linguistic lines of identity. As language becomes an important premise on which group
identities are organized and establishes the conditions for defining the ‘in-group’ and ‘out-group’
o According to the 2011 Census report of India, there are more than 19,500 languages or dialects
and 96.71 per cent population in the country have one of the 22 scheduled languages as their
mother tongue.
● Caste: The origin of confrontational identity politics based on caste may be said to have its origin
on the issue of providing the oppressed caste groups with state support in the form of protective
discrimination u/A 16. As per Dipankar Gupta, this group identity based on caste that has been
reinforced by the emergence of political consciousness around caste identities.
o For example in India we have the upper caste dominated BJP, the lower caste dominated BSP
(Bahujan Samaj Party) or the SP (Samajwadi Party), etc have implicitly followed the caste
pattern to extract mileage in electoral politics.
● Religion: Though communalism for a major part of the last century signified Hindu Muslim
conflict, in recent years contestations between Hindus and Sikhs, Hindus and Christians have
often crystallized into communal conflict and has become a threat and challenge for Indian
Democracy and Secularism.
o Example: Far-right parties like BJP is equated with Hindu Nationalism
● Gender: Gender in relation to identity politics connotes the struggle of identification for their
presence, and a demand for being respected and treated equally on par with other gender
(especially in relation to male).
o Example: The feminist movements and the gay liberation movements in and around the world.
● Ethnicity: There are two ways in which the concept of ethnic identity is used in identity politics;
one, it cosiders the formation of identity on the basis of single attribute - language, religion, caste,
region, etc; two, it considers the formation of identity on the basis, of multiple attributes
cumulatively.

o Example: Migration and local identity politics collide in Mumbai. Mumbai is noted for its
linguistic and cultural variety and decades-long anti-migrant politics. Since the 1960s, nativist
political groups have argued that migrants harm Marathi culture and steal jobs, housing, and
amenities from Maharashtrians.
Analysis of Identity Politics and its impact on society

● On the positive side:
o Focus on marginalised sections: Due to the emergence of political parties based on the
regional, linguistic or caste identities, they could focus on particular sections which are
deprived of political power and economic opportunities in the society.
o Political awareness: It also provides a scope for increase in political awareness among
marginalized and weaker sections of society, as they would be part of mainstream of politics
and also a part of recognition they gained through assertion of their identity.
o Affirmative Action: Identity politics has also given better representation to socially
discriminated classes and minorities through legal measures such as reservation.
o Determining policy imperatives: As per Kanchan Chandra, Identity politics not only
separates the sacred from the profane in elections, but it also creates a sense of a solidaristic
and symbolic collective in a bitterly divided environment of patronage democracy. This image
is then used to decide policy priorities for citizens, like who gets welfare payments and who
gets jobs first.
▪ Example: Elections offer voters not only ‘an opportunity for the expression of citizenship’
but also access to governance goodies like MNREGA job cards or Ujjwala gas connections
● Analyzing the Negative aspects:
o Breakdown of society: Identity politics has sowed the seeds of hatred and enmity among
different sections of society based on castes, religion, ethnicity etc. and also have led to
clashes, riots which in turn disturbed the set-up of communal harmony and the very secular
nature of the nation.
o Narrowed perspectives: It has also resulted in creating the limited or narrow minded views
of the citizens and political parties which makes them intolerant towards other communities.
o Divisive: Identity politics is responsible for divisive tendencies and could lead to the separatist
tendencies. This could divide the nation further and also poses a threat to the unity and
integrity of the nation. It reflects the Weberian concept of ‘zero sum power’ where by some
groups become powerful only at the expense of others
▪ Example: Naga insurgency after independence, Khalistan movement, Coorg demand for
a separate state etc
According to Rajni Kothari, Identity politics has played an important role in bringing marginalized and
discriminated sections of society to mainstream politics. However at the same time it has brought some
negative developments in Indian polity and society. So reasonable reforms are needed to reap the benefits
of the ‘Identity Politics’ to preserve and empower democracy in India.

6. (c) How do little and great traditions coexist in contemporary Indian society.
Approach
• Intro : Introduce the concept of Little tradition and Great tradition
• Body :
• Elaborate the Little tradition and Great tradition
• Elaborate the coexistence of great and little traditions in Indian society
• Conclusion : Highlight the importance of the concept
Little tradition and Great tradition is a conceptual approach that helps in the study of social change in
India. It was first used by Robert Redfield in his book “Peasant Society and Culture” (1956) based on his
study on villages of Mexico. Later on, Mckim Marriott and Milton Singer adopted this approach to study
social changes in India.
Great tradition Little tradition
It is the tradition of the lettered people who are The tradition of the unlettered (i.e.. non-literate
few in number. and illiterate) many people inhabiting a particular
area,
They are reflective, i.e. they think about the They are unreflective, i.e. they do not critically
tradition, make it sophisticated and systematise examine or comment upon it, and accept it as it is.
it, thus making it universal.
This tradition is cultivated in separate and This tradition is cultivated at home
distinct institutions, such as temples, mosques,
churches, synagogues, etc.
It is transmitted as a part of the specialized, It is transmitted from one generation to the next
rigorous, and long learning, in which the as part of the process of socialization.
individual is expected to internalize the tradition
correctly.
For example, classical literature like the Vedas, For example, folk music like Bihu, Baul etc.
Puranas etc.
Coexistence of great and little traditions in Indian society

● According to Redfield: Unlike the others the Indian civilization has emerged as a complex whole
of great and little, written and oral, literate and illiterate, formal and informal tradition. In the
context of Indian civilization, the interaction between the cultural heritage of tribal and non tribal
societies have been described by a number of scholars in various ways.
● According to Mackim Marriot: He has contributed two concepts to study the Indian civilization
namely universialisation and parochialisation in his study of Kishangarhi village in North India.
In the former the cultural traits of little tradition are absorbed into great tradition and a local
phenomenon become universialised (for e.g., worship of animal gods was absorbed into Hinduism
from tribal cultures) ; while in the latter some written, literate, shastriya and sanskritic elements
of great tradition are learnt about, reformed and modified by the folk people to become a part of
their cult (for example, Ramman festival in Uttarakhand with mythical retellings).

● According to Milton Singer: He has given the concept of culture complex in the form of
cultural geography, cultural performances, cultural specialists and cultural media. These are
practiced by the representatives of great traditions and due to continuous interactions with the
rural communities these have merged into the daily life of the rural people and they practise it
in their own way generation after generation.
o Example: As per Singer, The city is a hub for cultural invention, dissemination, and
advancement. He has divided the urbanisation process into two categories:
1. Primary urbanisation promotes the great tradition's principles.
2. Secondary urbanisation, which also has disintegrative effects because it obscures
values of Little tradition.
● According to L.P.Vidyarthi: In his concept of sacred complex, he described that the great
traditional elements are being practised in the holy and sacred cities, along with some sacred
performance by the scared specialists in a scared geographical area.
o In these places the entire cultural performance are lead by the head priest or mahanta.
Often the mahantas’ and their disciples move from village to village to collect subscription
and the villagers also often pay their visit to the holy sacred places.
No social life is possible without interaction and this communication is the basic to all social life. The
whole human society and each group in the society can be viewed as the manifestation of the social
processes between the interacting members through great and little traditions.
7 (a). Critically analyse Parsons views on society as a social system.

Approach
• Introduction : Define social system
• Body :
o Features of social system
o Write criticisms of theory of social system
• Conclusion : Write appreciation of the theory
As per Parsons, A social system consists of a plurality of individual actors interacting with each other in
a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect. The actors are motivated by a desire to
maximise their own satisfaction. Borrowing the idea of social system from Durkheim; Cultural system
from Malinowski, WHR Rivers, Radcliffe Brown; and Personality system from Mead, HR cooley,
Parsons developed his grand structural-functional framework.

Features of social system

• Basic Unit of Organisation of a Social System
• Role: It is the basic conceptual unit of the social system and it incorporates the individual
actor’s total system of action.
• Role-expectations: The primary element of role, according to Parsons is role-expectation. It
implies reciprocity between the actor and his/her alter (the other persons), and is governed by
a range of motivational and value orientations.
• Origin: Social interaction is a pre-requisite for Social System to emerge . He was influenced by
the works of Tonnies and Durkheim for his idea of social system.
• Role of social system:
• Macro-function: In his grand structural-functional framework, "Social System" is one of the
four highest-level abstractions with the function of ‘Integation’.
• Micro-function:
a. Action-systems: Social system is made up of a group of ‘social actions’ and fulfils some
functional pre-requisites like adaptation, goal-attainment, integration and latency.
b. Inter-relation: Social systems must be constructed to function in harmony with other
systems. This is because it needs the necessary assistance from other systems in order to
survive. Social System is linked with other systems through ‘Energy flow’ and
‘Information control’, which Parsons termed as ‘Cybernetic Hierarchy of Control
2. Others:
a. For actors: the system must provide for a sizable share of its actors' requirements. The system
must successfully engage all of its participants.
b. Behavior management: it should be able to moderate disruptive behaviour at least minimally. If
a conflict is too disruptive, it needs to be contained.
c. Medium: A language is necessary for a social system to function.

• Components of Social system: It has four subsystems (AGIL) or action-systems:

Economy Polity
(Adaptation) (Goal attainment)
Adapts to environment through labor, production, Mobilizes actors and resources towards the
and allocation goal
Societal Community Fiduciary System

(Integration) (Latency)
Nation, law etc coordinate various components. Schools and family transmit cultural values
They define relationships between individuals and
institutions to adjust conflicts.
● Coordination: It is necessary for a social system that the social actions of various members
of a society should be well-coordinated and should not so conflict as to destroy the social
harmony.
● Characteristics of Society as a Social System: Social System must have specific traits when
referring to society or a general society. These aren't the core conditions of society, just generic
characteristics of societies like India, China, and USA etc.
a) Differentiation and Coordination: No individual or group can meet all of its needs,
which is why several groups and cooperation are required.
b) Boundary Maintenance: Societies have the characteristic of maintaining their
boundaries, which entails identifying with the members of the entire society and labeling
others as foreigners; hence, there is a divide between insiders and outsiders. This manifests
itself through a sense of ‘we’ feeling or shared belonging.
c) Equilibrium: Equilibrium is a necessary part of any society that wants to stay the same.
Equilibrium means that people act and work according to how their roles, statuses,
responsibilities and perks are shared. Parsons said that all societies tend to stay the way
they are. In case of social change and disequilibrium, change in one system leads to
changes in other subsystems through internal dynamics.
▪ Example: when values of same sex marriages started taking hold in society, it also led
to their legalization and decriminalization.
▪ Example: if a society has rising unemployment, government policy could be to extend
the school leaving age to 18. Here, changes in the economic subsystem bring
adjustment in the political subsystem.
d) Maintenance of Rules: Every community must have some mechanism in place to keep
the rules or patterns in place. This is also an essential condition or prerequisite of society
as well as a characteristic of society.
Criticism of Parsons views of social system

● Grand Functional Theories: Merton criticised grand functional theories of Parsons and instead
emphasized on middle range theories.

● Coercive injection of values: Habermas argues that values are coercively injected into minds of
individuals through education, family, mass media which are known as cultural industries directly
or indirectly controlled by state. Thus, value consensus is not voluntaristic as envisaged by
Parsons.
● Lack of distinction: Bryan Turner argues that Parsons makes no distinction between Nazi
Germany, Fascist Italy, Communist China and Democratic America. For him all these are social
systems where AGIL is present.
● Conflict management: Ralf Dahrendorf says that conflict is endemic to every society and
society is largely involved in conflict resolution. Thus, conflict management is more important
than value consensus.
● Ends and Values: Alvin Gouldner states that while stressing the importance of ends and values
that men pursue, Parsons never asks whose ends and values these are.
● Teleological and Tautological: C.W. mills casts scorn on Parsons theory by calling it
teleological (A view which mistakenly regards an effect as a cause or function as purpose) and
tautological(means repetition of same sense in different words.)
● Status-quo oriented: He has shown too much of a preoccupation with order and equilibrium.
This has rendered his theory status-quo oriented.
● Subordinating Action Theory: Parsons attempted to blend action theory with functionalism by
using the concepts of ‘pattern variables’ and ‘systemic analyses. However, due to these very
concepts, he ended up in subordinating action theory of system.
● Against Democracy: Parsons supposedly disavows democracy in his implicit or explicit
knowledge aim, and that his sociology presumably makes society function even at the expense of
freedom of the individual.
● Lack collective feelings: Parsons modeled his theory on biology, where differentiation included
processes of growth from stem cells to specialized cells, just as nations progressed from
undeveloped to underdeveloped to developed. These processes were viewed as dysfunctional, as
leading to dispersal which lacked the dimension of collective feelings and unity.
Parsons played a crucial role in the development of the theory "Social System and Social Action" which
was an attempt to integrate the different social sciences into one theoretical framework. His main goal
was to utilize multiple social science disciplines to create one single universal theory of human
relationships.
7. (c) Illustrate with examples the role of pressure groups in the formulation of social policies.
Approach
• Introduction : Define pressure groups
• Body :
• Discuss role of pressure groups in the formulation of social policies
• Mention techniques generally used by the pressure groups :
• Write challenges associated with pressure groups
• Conclusion : Highlight importance of pressure groups

David Truman defined pressure groups as “that on the basis of one or more shared attitudes, makes certain
claims upon other groups in the society for the establishment, maintenance, enhancement of forms of
behavior that are implied by shared attitude.”
Example, Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI), Trade Unions like the All-
India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), Professional Groups like the Indian Medical Association (IMA),
Agrarian Groups like the All India Kisan Sabha, and Student Organisations like the Akhil Bharatiya
Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP).
Role of pressure groups in the formulation of social policies:

● Political awareness: The pressure groups perform a major role in modifying the community
as a whole by generating political awareness and making the electorate politically aware.
o For instance, the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) movement has raised awareness
among the populace about the need to challenge the government's decisions surrounding
the construction of dams and its effects
● Empowering minority: Besides, enhancing the quality of democracy, pressure groups at
times are autocratic in nature; they represent the powerful minority who are financially
affluent, thereby overshadowing the needs of the vast majority.
o Example- Gujjar organization to demand for reservation
● Building linkage: Pressure groups are a vital link between the government and the governed.
They keep governments more responsive to the wishes of the community, especially in
between elections.
● Tapping expertise: Pressure groups are able to use their expertise to provide the government
with important information.
● Alternative source of advice: Pressure groups offer an alternative source of advice to the
government, separate from that coming from the Public Service.
o Example: Observor Research Foundation works on policy issues primarily
related to foreign affairs.
● Generating opportunities: Pressure groups generally promote opportunities for political
participation for citizens, without the need to join a political party. Moreover, they allow for
the democratic rights of freedom of speech, assembly and association to be upheld.

● Accountability of Government: PGs serves as a check against actions and inaction of

Government.
o Example: A people's organisation called Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sanghthan (MKSS) in the
State of Rajasthan was successful in getting the public to inquire about and demand details
regarding money spent on roads, loans to the poor, and other matters. The movement for
right to information was founded on this.
● Lobbying: In order to inform government officials about the benefits or drawbacks of new
legislation, lobbyists may get in touch with legislators, ministers, and bureaucrats.
o Ex: FICCI advocates for tax reforms that benefit business.
Techniques generally used by the pressure groups:

● Electioneering: In this method, they place representatives favoring their issues in prominent
public offices.
● Lobbying: This method employs convincing public officers to adopt and implement policies that
will benefit their Interests.
● Propagandizing: This involves influencing public opinion in their favour and pressurising the
government to accept their interests, as, in a democracy, public opinion is regarded as the
sovereign.
● Organising protests: The interest groups also organise protests, rallies, campaigns that indirectly
exercise pressure on the government and oblige them to consider the demands of the people.
● Demonstrating generally occurs outside government offices, Parliament House, Jantar-Mantar,
etc. or marching on the streets.
● Mass media: In recent years, pressure groups have also taken the help of mass media to present
their case before the people and gather public opinion in their favour as public opinion is always
an asset in a democracy.
Challenges associated with pressure groups:

● Against majority interests: Pressure groups may represent a powerful minority force in society
and exert political influence to the detriment of the majority of society. This is an argument often
leveled at trade unions and business groups.
● Positional Influence: Some pressure groups exert influence because of their financial position,
membership or organisation. This influence may be out of proportion to their position in society.
● Hardships: The use of direct action by pressure groups (eg. strikes by unions, demonstrations,
blockades, pickets) can cause hardship to the community in general.
● Un-democratic: Some pressure groups are not democratic in themselves. Some have powerful,
but unrepresentative leaders who may not be representative of anyone but themselves. Some
leaders do not reflect the opinions of their organisation’s members.
Undeniably, pressure groups constitute the inseparable organs of effectively workable democracy. These
groups practically work as psychological deterrent before the public policy planners and makers
preventing them in doing excesses and injustices and also empower the public to have their voices heard.

7. (b) Discuss how 'environmentalism' can be explained with new social movements approach.
Approach
• Intro : Define new social movements
• Body :
• Write features of NSM
• Explain environmentalism as an NSM :
• Mention some features of environmentalism as old social movements.
• Conclusion : Highlight the significance of environmentalism as NS
New social movements (NSMs) are social movements distinct from those social movements arising
during the industrial economy. Environmentalism is also considered a key “new social movement”
(NSM), assumed to share fundamental characteristics with other NSMs such as the women’s, anti-nuclear,
and peace movements.
Examples- Fridays for Future, Save Aarey Forest etc.
Features of NSM:
● Goals: more importance is attached to social and cultural concerns, rather than economic or
political considerations.
● Participants: Actors in NSMs are from a new middle class, instead of from the lower classes, as
was typical of social movements of the industrial economy.
● Informal: NSMs consist of informal, loosely organized social networks of supporters rather than
members and tend to be locally-based.
● Relation with state: NSMs act as a platform for collective action in civil society or in the cultural
domain, rather than as an instrumental tool for the state. As such, new movements are often
considered to be anti-authoritarian.
● NSMs are normally centered on a single issue, or a limited range of issues which are related to a
broader theme, such as the environment.
Environmentalism as an NSM:
● Cultural Effects: With impressive staying power and large organizational base of
environmentalism, the movement has clearly had significant institutional and cultural effects
within most industrialized nations and beyond.
● Challenge to industrial societies: New social movements are seen as representing a fundamental
challenge to industrial societies, a challenge that is explicitly encompassed by environmentalism.
o Example: Pollutor Pays Principle makes industries liable for their actions
● Public Support: Public support is a crucial resource for any social movement and the largely
consensual nature of environmental protection has given the environmental movement an
advantage over movements that pursue more divisive goals.
● Umbrella movement: The environmental movement is further assumed to be the NSM with the
greatest potential to bring all of the NSMs together under one umbrella, providing the ideological
“glue” or “master frame” to hold them all together.

o Example: Emergence of numerous streams of contemporary environmentalism, such as

ecofeminism, deep ecology, social ecology, and environmental justice etc.
● New Politics: Environmental groups have often spearheaded the New Politics [i.e., NSMs’]
challenge to the traditional political values of industrialized societies.”
● Non-hierarchial: Some environmental groups are keen to pursue non-hierarchical forms of
organization in their movement, playing down the role of hierarchy of leaders.
● Decentralised: Many environmental groups prefer grass roots based decentralized form of
participation. This involves changes in modes of consciousness in civil society rather than the
passing of new laws through the state.
● New base of supporters:
o Age: Studies of various NSMs, including environmentalism, in different countries have
typically found that both supporters and activists tend to be younger than non-supporters.
o Gender: Studies of the animal rights movement, in particular, have found higher
participation levels among women than among men
Some features of ‘Old’ movements in Environmental Movements include:

● Dependence on Politics: Many environmental organizations are concerned to get politicians to
do things to remedy degradation. In the developed world green parties have emerged and they are
aimed at getting into political power.
● Importance of hierarchy: Some 'realists' think that formal leadership structures and hierarchies
are the most effective way to pursue political change.
Therefore, the environmental movement is frequently viewed as constituting the vanguard of the NSMs,
embracing and encompassing other contemporary movement goals in addition to environmental
protection.
8 (a) Sociologists argue for democratization of Science and Technology for inclusive development.
Comment.
Approach
• Intro : Define new social movements
• Body :
• Write features of NSM
• Explain environmentalism as an NSM :
• Mention some features of environmentalism as old social movements
• Conclusion : Highlight the significance of environmentalism as NS
The democratisation of science and technology implies a stronger societal influence over science. It also
means a more equitable distribution of that power among society's participants.
Inclusive development is the concept that every person, regardless of their identity, is instrumental in
transforming their societies.

Democratization of science and technology basically involves:

● Redistribution of epistemic authority between scientists and laypeople to make it more equal.
● Efforts to “democratize expertise” that erode the boundaries between scientists and laypeople
by recognizing various forms of “lay expertise”.
● The increase of the society's influence over various aspects of science;
● The equalization of the opportunity for influence among members of the society
● The realization of the conditions that enables social actors to form an accurate conception of their
interests and values, and gain knowledge of what will promote them.
Democratization of science and technology aids in inclusive development through:

● Applications: Democratization of science also improves the application of scientific research by
making better use of knowledge dispersed across society by facilitating discussions that help
identify and articulate social needs.
● Increasing Trust: Democratic influence over scientific decisions can also make science more
trustworthy for the public. Democratic deliberation can lead to revisions and alignments in the
value judgments of scientists.
● Reducing the Rural-Urban Disparity: With the invention of new agricultural tools and chemical
manures, agricultural production has increased there by raising the standard of living of the rural
people.
● Providing suitable avenues of social mobility for marginalised sections of the society such as:
o Women: It can increase the job opportunities for women. For eg, rise of work from home after
the pandemic.
o Queers: Technology blues the sexual division of labour and gender based discriminations.

o Old age: Through increasing access to gadgets and digital literacy, elders can use their
expertise for social development. For eg, SACRED portal developed by Government of India
to provide employment to old age.
● Culture: Scientific discoveries and inventions can change the attitude of men and women towards
many rituals, creeds, and religious practices.
o Example: Chromosomal studies highlighted that men is responsible for determining the sex
of the child. This changed the view towards rituals like Putarda Ekadashi.
● Dispersion: Any mechanical invention may have both direct and derivative social effects. No
invention is limited to a single social effect; its influence extends over a very wide range covering
almost all aspects of society.
o Ogburn noted that material culture changes at a faster pace than non-material culture.
▪ Example: He noted 150 social effects of the radio: effects ranging all the way from
entertainment, education, diffusion of culture to morning exercises.
o Standard of Living: Technology raises our standards of living by providing for our
enjoyment both new kinds of goods and greater quantities of goods.
● Feminist perspective: A feminist perspective can help us move from a hard technology society
to a soft technology future in which values such as harmony with nature, subjectivity, co-
operation, and non-exploitation become integral to technological development.
o Example: Eco-friendly construction of houses
● Functionalist such as Lenski and Parsons argue that technology increased the adaptive capacity
of the society for the welfare of all
o Example: Gig platforms has adapted the local drivers to register themselves on the same
● As a creative, decentralization force: Soshana Zuboff highlights that Information technology
can help to break down rigid hierarchies, engage more employees in decision – making and
involve workers more closely in the day – to – day affairs of the organization.
o Example: Those who have fear of public speaking can give their suggestions by writing in
the chat box of video meetings.
o Example: The emergence of digital platforms like bookmybai.com in mediating domestic
work offered scope for equality. It opened up this historically stigmatized form of work to
everyone rather than just women from reserved castes.
However, challenges such as Rise of Tech Elites and Technopolies (Neil Postman), cyber threats, online
trolling and abusing, fake news, digital illiteracy need to be resolved to transform science into service.
Efforts like Indian Science Congress, Cyber security treaty, GAFA tax are efforts to regulate the misuse
of science and technology.
8 (b) Are traditional social institutions getting weakened as agents of social change in the
contemporary society? Substantiate.
According to Wilbert Moore "Social change is a significant alteration in structure over time in behaviour
patterns and culture including norms and values".

Weakening of traditional social institutions as agents of social change in contemporary society:

● Education
o Schools have emerged as primary education imparters and a functional alternative to traditional
institutions of learning like temples, family etc.
● Religion:
o Robert Bellah argues that Religion is increasingly becoming individual affair.
o Durkheim pointed out that integrative functions are now fulfilled by the membership of professional
communities.
▪ Example: Trade unions
● Marriage:
o Nicky Harts argues that opportunity to skip marriage are more today.
▪ Example: Kapadia in his study of 240 graduate teachers in 1951 found that about 50% of his
respondents considered divorce desirable
o Desacrilization of Marriage: Life is becoming more and more secular and marriage is not sacred as
it was earlier.
● Family:
o William Goode says that nuclear family is isolated from the wider kinship network leading to
emotional burden.
o Edmund Leach argues that family today is a store House of stress and tension.
▪ Example: Domestic violence on spouse
Prevalence of traditional social institutions as agents of social change

● Education
o While formal education has shifted to modern agents, informal education is still shaped by family,
community, religion etc.
● Religion
o Finke & Stark conclude that religion is becoming stronger and competition increases overold religious
involvement.
o Religious philosophies like non-violence of Buddhism and Jainism assists in environmental
conservation.
▪ Example: Zero Budget Natural Farming is based on Jeevamurta principle
● Marriage
o New forms of marriage such as sologamy, throuble etc are asserting the rising utility of marriage to
represent freedom and individualism.
● Family
o Pauline Kolenda argues that industrialization has trending joint family as an economic base has been
provided.
● Law:
o Bakshi and Mishra argue that majority of the people India don't have access to judicial institutions.
As a result, local institutions like Khap panchayat still have a role in rural India.
▪ Example: NCRB reported around 356 cases of honour killing during 2014-16. These are enforced
by Khap panchayat.
o Andre Beteille argues that people are driven by caste rather than Constitution.
▪ Example: Caste-based voting and reservation for employment
Thus, in contemporary times, traditional social institutions have been weakened in some aspects and
strengthened in other aspects.

8. (c) How do you understand the relationship between patriarchy and social development?
According to Yogendra Singh development refers to strategy of planned social change which is
considered as desirable by the members of the society. In a patriarchal society, social development is also
often ‘gender-blind’ and obstructed by gender based inequalities.
Patriarchy
Patriarchy hinders various aspects of social development:
● Son-meta preference: Social justice and equal distribution of opportunities is hindered due to
preferential treatment to male child.
● Amartya Sen argued that latent energy of women is something that hasn’t yet been tapped so
much in India due to patriarchal issues.
● Unsafe and unsecure environment for an individual to survive is hindered due to crime against
women and violence in multiple forms in both public and private spher
o Example: sexual harassment at workplace
● Healthcare: High Female Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) due
to lack to access to nutrition and healthcare.
o Example: Indian houses prefer education and nutrition of son over daughter. This later leads
to weakening health of women and their undernourished children
● Glass ceilings and Glass cliffs: Leads to Low female workforce participation rate which
perpetuals the vicious cycle of inequality.
o Example: In the tech layoffs between September-December 2022, women workers constitute
47% of layoffs when they made up 40% of the workforce.
● Low representation in public domain and policy making leads to absence of women friendly
initiatives.
o Only 14% of the Lok Sabha members are women.
● Feminist perspective: Feminists argue that patriarchy hinders overall development of nation.
Christine Lagarde argues that equality can increase gdp by 18-20%.
● Coercive values of patriarchy is transmitted from one generation to another through generalized
others which leads to conformity in social structure and lack of changes in social institutions.

● Functionalist argue that through sexual division of labour, females and males are binded by
patriarchy in helping each other in achieving societal goals.
o Role Allocation: Parsons argued that sexual division of labour in which expressive role of
women is effective way for role allocation in family and society.
● State is one of the important institutions in social development but feminist like Sylvia Walby
considers state as the one of the factors in perpetuating patriarchy.
o Example: Pending women reservation bill in parliament
● Marxist Perspective: Engels considers patriarchy promotes capitalism which further oppresses
men by playing low wages and women by paying no wages.
● Uma Chakravorthy: the Brahminical social code's rules, practises, and rituals, maintained the
intellectual control over women by idealising virginity and marriage faithfulness as the highest
duties of women.
o Example: The rules of education were only allowed for Brahmins and not women.
Social development inhibits patriarchy by:

● Social mobility: Empowering women by providing them appropriate avenues of social mobility
in social hierarchy.
o Example: Social development has led to women entering permanent commission in Indian
armed forces
● Shattering false ideologies: Enhancing social consciousness among women regarding their
exploitative conditions.
o Example: Education helps women to understand the taboos associated with mensturation
● Internalizing right values: Legitimizing social change in favour of women and internalizing new
liberal values among the members of the society.
o Example: Internalizing value that women of all shapes and sizes are beautiful
As Michelle Rosaldo pointed out that Women come closer to the equality if men become more involved
in domestic life, sharing of responsibilities is a key to equality. Also, government schemes like Beti
Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme, One Stop Centre Scheme, Women Helpline Scheme, UJJAWALA are
focusing upon social development of women.
*******



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HIGHLY RELEVANT MODEL ANSWERS

UPSC CSE 2022 EXAM

1. (a) Delimit the scope of Sociology in relation to other social sciences.

Positioning Sociology among other Sciences

Scope of Sociology in relation to other social sciences

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● Sociology and Political Science

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● Sociology and Anthropology

1. (b) How does a researcher achieve objectivity in Interpretive research?

Researcher can achieve objectivity in Interpretive research through

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Challenges in achieving objectivity.

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Difference between data and information

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However, there are similarities between data and information:

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Criticisms of Durkheim's theory

1. (e) How do Sociology construct gender in their analysis on social Inequality?

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Sociological construction of gender:

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1. Emotional support of wife

Aspects of 'Enlightenment' that paved way for the emergence of sociology:

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Types of non-probability sampling techniques:

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2. (c) Discuss social mobility in open and closed system.

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Close system Open system

Nature of Mobility in open systems:

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Nature of Mobility in closed system:

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Features of positivistic philosophy

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● Quantitative Techniques: Positive researchers employ quantitative techniques including

Shortfalls of Positivistic Philosophy

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Origin of non-positivist methods in Shortfalls of Positivistic Philosophy

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Shortfalls of Positivistic Philosophy gave rise to non-positivist methods such as Phenomenology,

Work Suicide (1897) ‘Social Structure and Anomie, 1938’.

Anomie is a pathological state of A situation in which there is a

● Absence of regulation: The • The structure of society itself

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thereby weakens constraints on ● Discrepancy: This discrepancy

Anomie is a temporary stage. It occurs Anomie is ever present in society as

Always negative 1. Structural Strain arises which leads

Durkheim initially believed that In order to be able to cope with this

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● Ritualism: Lowering / abandoning

In Rules of Sociological Method, he The ‘American Dream” entails

Criticism of Durkheim's theory of anomie

Criticism of Merton’s Theory

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Causes of degradation of work in capitalist society according the Marx

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o Example: Foxconn's 1.4-square-mile flagship factory near Shenzhen used to assemble