Mechanical Drives 1 Lap 6

MECHANICAL
LEARNING
DRIVES 1 ACTIVITY
PACKET
SPUR GEAR DRIVES
TM
B502-XC
LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKET 6
SPUR GEAR DRIVES
INTRODUCTION
In this LAP, you will begin your study of the third type of adjacent shaft-to-shaft
power transfer drive, the gear drive. The gear drive was the first type of drive invented. It
has been in use for thousands of years and is today used in a wide variety of applications
from machine tool drives to computer printers.
Gear drives are preferred over belts and chains for applications that require either
very high speeds, very high loads, very high gear ratios, or compact gear reduction.
Gears also allow the direction of rotation to be reversed and shafts to be turned at right
angles. A final advantage of gears is that they do not slip, making them ideal for
synchronizing applications.
Although there are many types of gear drives, the spur gear is the most common
because it is low in cost and easy to maintain. It is also the fundamental gear design from
which all other gears are designed. This makes it a good type to use to teach the general
concepts of the operation of all types of gears, and, therefore, this LAP will focus on spur
gears.
ITEMS NEEDED
Needed Amatrol Supplied
Items
950-ME1 Mechanical Drives 1 Learning System
Amatrol or School Supplied

Assorted Hand Tools
FIRST EDITION, LAP 6, REV. B

Amatrol, AMNET, CIMSOFT, MCL, MINI-CIM, IST, ITC, VEST, and Technovate are trademarks or registered
trademarks of Amatrol, Inc. All other brand and product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their
respective companies.
Copyright © 2006, 2005 by AMATROL, INC.
All rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, or transmitted in any form or by any
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recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner.
Amatrol, Inc., P.O. Box 2697, Jeffersonville, Indiana 47131 USA, Phone 812-288-8285, FAX 812-283-1584
B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

Copyright  2006 Amatrol, Inc. 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SEGMENT 1 GEAR DRIVE CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
OBJECTIVE 1 Describe the function of the three components of a gear drive system
OBJECTIVE 2 Define the gear pitch, pitch circle, and pitch diameter and explain their importance
OBJECTIVE 3 Describe how to calculate the gear ratio of a gear drive
SKILL 1 Calculate gear ratio
SEGMENT 2 GEAR DRIVE DESIGNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

OBJECTIVE 4 Describe how to calculate the shaft speed and torque of a gear drive system
SKILL 2 Calculate the shaft speed and torque of a gear train drive system
OBJECTIVE 5 Describe the functions of four types of gear drives and give an application of each
OBJECTIVE 6 List four types of parallel shaft gears and give an application of each
SEGMENT 3 SPUR GEAR OPERATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

OBJECTIVE 7 Describe eleven features of a gear
OBJECTIVE 8 Identify the twelve dimensions of a gear and explain the importance of each
Activity 1 Gear feature Identification
OBJECTIVE 9 Identify the ten dimensions and features of a gear drive and explain the importance of each
OBJECTIVE 10 Describe the operation of a spur gear drive
SEGMENT 4 SPUR GEAR INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

OBJECTIVE 11 Describe how to install and align a spur gear drive system
SKILL 3 Install and align a spur gear drive system
OBJECTIVE 12 Describe the function of backlash
OBJECTIVE 13 Describe how to determine the allowable backlash in a gear drive
SKILL 4 Determine the allowable backlash in a gear drive
SEGMENT 5 SPUR GEAR ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

OBJECTIVE 14 Describe two methods of measuring spur gear backlash
SKILL 5 Measure gear backlash
SKILL 6 Adjust gear backlash to a specified amount
Activity 2 Gear drive analysis

SEGMENT 1
GEAR DRIVE CONCEPTS
OBJECTIVE 1 DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE THREE COMPONENTS

OF A GEAR DRIVE SYSTEM
dT
his A gear drive consists of three basic components, as shown in figure
Rea
1.
• Driver Gear
• Driven Gear
• Idler Gear
DRIVER
GEAR
IDLER
GEAR
DRIVEN
GEAR
Figure 1. Basic Components of a Gear Drive

These components are described as follows:
• Driver Gear - The driver gear is a disk-shaped component with
teeth which is attached to the shaft of the driver. It is positioned so
that its teeth mesh with either the driven gear or the idler gear, as
shown in figure 1. When the drive shaft turns, the driver gear
rotates and one or more of its teeth apply a force to the next gear,
causing it to rotate.
• Driven Gear - The driven gear is a disk-shaped component with
teeth which is attached to the driven shaft. It rotates when the gear
next to it rotates and in turn causes the driven shaft to rotate.
• Idler Gear - The idler gear is also a disk-shaped component with
teeth of the same design as the driver and driven gears. It is
positioned in between the driver and driven gears and transfers the
torque and motion from the driver gear to the driven gear. Its
purpose is either to change the direction of rotation of the driven
gear or transfer the power to a location which is further from the
driver shaft. It does not affect either the speed or the torque output
of the driven gear.
The relative diameters of the driver and driven gears determine the
speed and torque of the driven shaft. The ratio of the sizes of the gears
can be selected to either decrease or increase the speed and torque
delivered to the driven shaft.
A gear drive can be designed as either an open or closed unit. A
closed unit has a housing which contains the gears, as shown in figure 2.
This housing protects the gears and provides a way of containing the oil
or grease lubrication.
Open units do not have a housing but will still have a guard of some
type that is used to contain the lubrication.
Figure 2. Gear Drive Housing

OBJECTIVE 2 DEFINE THE GEAR PITCH, PITCH CIRCLE, AND PITCH
DIAMETER AND EXPLAIN THEIR IMPORTANCE
dT
his Like belt drives, the features of pitch circle and pitch diameter are
Rea
also important concepts with gear drives. Unlike belt drives, however,
pitch has a specific meaning in a gear drive.
The pitch of a gear is the distance between one point on a tooth and
the corresponding point on next tooth when measured along the pitch
circle, as shown in figure 3. This is also called circular pitch.
CIRCULAR
PITCH
PITCH
CIRCLE
Figure 3. Gear Pitch

The pitch circle of a gear is the location on the gear where speed and
torque are transmitted. This occurs at the contact point between the gear
teeth along a line that passes through the line of centers of the two gears,
as shown in figure 4. The pitch diameter is simply the diameter of this
pitch circle.
Another dimension which is related to the pitch diameter is the pitch
radius. It is equal to 1/2 the pitch diameter.
PITCH
PITCH DIAMETER
DIAMETER
LINE OF
CENTERS
PITCH
RADIUS
PITCH PITCH
CIRCLE CIRCLE
Figure 4. Pitch Circle and Diameter of a Gear
The pitch diameter is important because it can be used to calculate

the speed and torque which are transmitted to the driven shaft. The pitch
circle is important only because it allows you to determine the pitch
diameter.
The term pitch length does not apply to the gear drive, because the
gears are in direct contact with each other.

OBJECTIVE 3 DESCRIBE HOW TO CALCULATE THE GEAR RATIO
OF A GEAR DRIVE
dT
his The speed and torque which are transmitted to the driven shaft of a
Rea
gear drive can be calculated using the gear ratio. This is similar to the
concept of the pulley ratio in a belt drive.
The gear ratio can be calculated using one of two methods:
• Ratio of pitch diameters
• Ratio of number of gear teeth
Ratio of Pitch Diameters

Calculating the ratio of pitch diameters is the same as calculating the
pulley ratio of a belt drive, as the following formula shows:
FORMULA: GEAR RATIO

Pitch diameter of driven gear
Gear Ratio =
Pitch diameter of driver gear
As an example of how to calculate the gear ratio, look at the gear

drive system shown in figure 5. The pitch diameters of the driver and
driven gears are 2 inches and 4 inches respectively. This means that the
gear ratio is 2 (GR= 4/2). This is also stated as 2:1.
2.0” 4.0”
DRIVER DRIVEN
GEAR GEAR
Figure 5. Calculation of Gear Ratio

NOTE
tic
e This It is important to remember that the gear ratio is determined
No
using the pitch diameter, which is not the same as the outer
diameter of a gear. If you use the outer diameter, your answer
will have an error.
Ratio of Number of Gear Teeth

Another method of calculating the gear ratio is to use the number of
teeth of each gear as shown in the following formula:
FORMULA: GEAR RATIO

No. of Teeth of driven gear
Gear Ratio =
No. of Teeth of driver gear
For example, if the driver and driven gears in figure 5 have 11 and
22 teeth respectively, the gear ratio is again 2:1.
The particular formula you use depends on the data you have
available. If you are using manufacturer’s catalog data, you can probably
use either one because both the number of teeth and pitch diameter are
both usually listed. If you are in the plant, you will probably use the
number of teeth because it is easier to count the teeth than measure the
pitch diameter.

As with the pulley ratio of belt drives, the gear ratio determines how
fast the driven gear will turn. This is because the teeth of the driver gear
transfer speed to the teeth of the driven gear such that the points on the
teeth of the two gears at their pitch diameters move at the same surface
speed. If the gears are of different sizes, the driven shaft’s rotational
speed (RPM) will be different than the driver shaft’s rotational speed
(RPM). The shaft with the larger gear will have a slower rotational speed
than the shaft with the small gear.
2.0” 4.0”
INPUT
SPEED
1800 RPM
SURFACE SPEED AT OUPUT SPEED

CONTACT POINT OF BOTH 900 RPM
GEARS IS THE SAME
Figure 6. Effect of Relative Gear Size on the Speed of the Driven Shaft

In a similar manner to speed, the gear ratio also affects the torque
transmitted to the driven shaft. To understand why, you should recall that
the force applied to the surfaces of the two gears is the same. Since the
torque radius is the pitch radius of the gear, the torque in one gear will be
different than another if its radius (or pitch diameter) is different.
In the case of the example in figure 7, the effective torque in the
driver gear is 10 in-lbs. The effective torque in the driven gear, however,
is 20 in-lbs (T = 10 x 2 = 20). The larger gear increased the torque
delivered to the driven shaft.
PITCH
RADIUS
INPUT 2.0 in
TORQUE
10.0 in-lbs
TORQUE
OUTPUT
20.0 in-lbs
PITCH
RADIUS Te = 10 lbs
1.0 in
Figure 7. Effect of Gear Ratio on Torque of Driven Shaft
From this discussion, you can say that the larger gear turns slower
but has greater torque. This is a common sense concept you can use on
the job to determine in general how speed and torque are being changed
by the mechanical drive system.

SKILL 1 CALCULATE GEAR RATIO
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will determine the gear ratio of a
number of gear drive applications. To do this, you will
either use the pitch diameters or the number of teeth,
depending on which is given. This is a simple skill, but you
will use it in the next skill in this LAP to calculate the speed
and torque of gear drive shafts.
This ❑ 1. Calculate the gear ratio of the gear drive shown in figure 8.
Do
Gear Ratio_____________________________________________
PITCH DIA = 4 in.
PITCH DIA = 2.5 in.
DRIVEN GEAR
DRIVER GEAR
Figure 8. Gear Drive Application
In this case, the pitch diameter of the driver gear is 4 inches and
the pitch diameter of the driven gear is 2.5 inches. The ratio is
therefore 0.625(R=2.5/4= 0.625).

❑ 2. Calculate the gear ratio of the gear drive given the following
information.
Given:
Driven Gear = 65 Teeth
Driver Gear = 20 Teeth
Gear Ratio: ____________________________________________

The solution is 3.25 (R = 65/20).
information.
Given:
Driven Gear Pitch Dia. = 6.5 inches
Driver Gear Pitch Dia. = 1.8 inches
Gear Ratio: ____________________________________________

The solution is 3.61 (R = 6.5/1.8).
information.
Given:
Driver Gear = 80 Teeth
Driven Gear = 30 Teeth
Gear Ratio: ____________________________________________

The solution is 0.375 (R = 30/80).
information
Given:
Driver Gear Pitch Dia. = 4 inches
Driven Gear Pitch Dia. = 12 inches
Gear Ratio: ____________________________________________

The solution is 3:1 (R = 12/4).

SEGMENT 1
SELF REVIEW
r This
we
Ans
1. A gear that transfers speed and torque from a driver gear to a
driven gear is called a(n) ___________________ gear.
2. Idler gears _______________ the direction of rotation or

transfer power to a location that is farther from the driven
shaft.
3. A gear drive that has a housing which contains the gears and
lubricant is called a(n) ______________ unit gear drive.
4. The ______________ ratio is determined by dividing the

pitch diameter of the driven gear by that of the driver gear.
5. The same ratio can also be determined by using the ratio of

the _________________ of teeth of the two gears.
6. The circle along which speed and torque are directly

transferred is called the ____________ circle.

SEGMENT 2
GEAR DRIVE DESIGNS
OBJECTIVE 4 DESCRIBE HOW TO CALCULATE THE SHAFT SPEED

AND TORQUE OF A GEAR DRIVE SYSTEM
his
dT The relationship between gear sizes and shaft speeds of a gear drive
Rea
as described in the previous objective can be expressed in the following

formulas:
FORMULA: GEAR DRIVE SPEED

Driver Rotational Speed (RPM) Pitch Diameter of Driven Gear
=
Driven Rotational Speed (RPM) Pitch Diameter of Driver Gear
OR
Driver Rotational Speed No. of Teeth of Driven Gear
=
Driven Rotational Speed No. of Teeth of Driver Gear
As you can see by the formula, the shaft speeds are inversely
proportional to the pitch diameters and number of teeth. This means that
an increase in gear size (or teeth) causes the speed to decrease. Also,
notice that the right hand side of the formula is actually the gear ratio, so
the formula can also be stated as follows:
FORMULA: GEAR DRIVE SPEED

Driver Rotational Speed (RPM)
= Gear Ratio
Driven Rotational Speed (RPM)

The calculation of shaft torque is performed using a formula which is
similar to the shaft speed formula, except that the torque is directly
proportional to the pitch diameters or number of teeth. The torque
formula is therefore as follows:
FORMULA: GEAR DRIVE TORQUE

Driven Rotational Torque Driven Pitch Diameter
=
Driver Rotational Torque Driver Pitch Diameter
OR
Driven Rotational Torque No. of Teeth of Driven Gear
=
Driver Rotational Torque No. of Teeth of Driver Gear
As with the speed formula, the torque formula can be modified to

use the gear ratio as follows:
FORMULA: GEAR DRIVE TORQUE

Driven Rotational Torque
= Gear Ratio
Driver Rotational Torque

SKILL 2 CALCULATE THE SHAFT SPEED AND TORQUE
OF A GEAR DRIVE SYSTEM
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will use the formulas just
described to determine speed and torque of either the
driver or the driven shaft. On the job, you will sometimes
know the driver data and will need to determine the driven
data. In other cases, it will be the reverse.
This ❑ 1. Calculate the driven shaft speed of the gear drive system shown in
Do
figure 9.
Driven Shaft Speed ________________________________(RPM)
1800 RPM PITCH DIA = 12.0 in

PITCH DIA 4.0 in
30 in-lbs
DRIVER GEAR
DRIVEN GEAR
Figure 9. Gear Drive System
The solution is 600 RPM.

❑ 2. Calculate the driven shaft torque of the gear drive shown in figure
9.
Driven Shaft Torque _______________________________(in-lbs)
The solution is 90 in-lbs.

❑ 3. Calculate the driven shaft speed and torque of the gear drive
system shown in figure 10.
Driver Shaft Speed ________________________________(RPM)
Driver Shaft Torque _______________________________(in-lbs)

The solution is 1200 RPM.
The solution is 25 ft-lbs.
18 TEETH
733 RPM
11 TEETH 41 ft-lbs
DRIVEN GEAR
DRIVER GEAR
Figure 10. Gear Drive System

system given the following information.
Driver Gear:
Pitch Dia. 1.8 in
Speed 1800 RPM
Torque 125 in
Driven Gear:
Pitch Dia. 6.5 in

The solutions are 498 RPM and 451 in-lbs.
system given the following information.
Driver Gear:
No. of Teeth 80
Speed 600 RPM
Torque 824 in-lbs
Driven Gear:
No. of Teeth 20
The solutions are 2400 RPM and 206 in-lbs.

OBJECTIVE 5 DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF FOUR TYPES OF
GEAR DRIVES AND GIVE AN APPLICATION OF EACH
his
dT Gear drives come in many designs. One way to group these designs
Rea
is the direction of orientation of the driven shaft relative to the
orientation of the driver shaft. There are four basic categories:
• Parallel Axis
• Intersecting Axis
• Non-intersecting Axis
• Moving axis
Each of these is explained as follows:
Parallel Axis Gear Drive

The shafts of a parallel axis gear drive are placed side-by-side or in
parallel with each other, as shown in figure 11. This is a very common
configuration. It is used in applications such as machine tool drives when
it is desired or where it is possible to drive a shaft which is mounted in
the same direction as the driver shaft. There are several types of parallel
axis gear drives.
Figure 11. Parallel Axis Gear Drive

Intersecting Axis Gear Drive
This type of gear drive gets its name because the gears are designed
so that the axes of the shafts are maintained on the same plane and
therefore intersect with each other. The intersecting axis gear drive is
designed to transfer power to a driven shaft which is at a right angle (90
degrees) to the driver shaft, as shown in figure 12. It is commonly used
in applications such as gear reducers.
Figure 12. Intersecting Axis Gear Drive
Non-Intersecting Axis Gear Drive

The non-intersecting gear drive is also designed to transfer power at
right angles to the drive shaft, but the axes of the shafts are not on the
same plane, as shown in figure 13. An example of this type of gear is the
worm gear or crossed-axis helical gear. Worm gears are used where there
is a need for a low cost gear reducer with a very high gear ratio.
WORM
WORMGEAR
Figure 13. Non-Intersecting Axis Gear Drive

Moving Axis Gear Drive
The moving axis gear drive is designed to convert rotary motion to
linear motion. One example of this drive is the rack and pinion drive
shown in figure 14. This is used in fluid power actuators to convert
linear motion into rotary motion.
Figure 14. Rack and Pinion Gear Drive

OBJECTIVE 6 LIST FOUR TYPES OF PARALLEL AXIS GEAR DRIVES
AND GIVE AN APPLICATION OF EACH
his
dT There are four types of gear drives which transfer power between
Rea
parallel axes:
• Spur
• Helical
• Herringbone
• Internal
Each of these is described as follows:
Spur Gears
The spur gear is the most basic of gear drives. Its teeth are cut into
the gear parallel to the axis of rotation, as shown in figure 15. This type
of gear is used in mainly in low-to-medium speed applications such as
machine tool drives, instrument transducers, and gear reducers because it
is low cost and easy to maintain.
PARALLEL
AXES
Figure 15. Spur Gear Drive

Helical Gears
The helical gear is similar in design to the spur gear except that its
teeth are cut into the gear at an angle to the gear’s axis of rotation, as
shown in figure 16. This type gear, while more expensive than the spur
gear, is able to operate at higher speeds. It also operates more quietly and
smoothly. One disadvantage to this gear is that it creates a side or thrust
load because of its angled gear teeth.
PARALLEL
AXES
Figure 16. Helical Gear Drive

Herringbone Gear Drive
The herringbone gear design is composed of two helical designs, as
shown in figure 17. For this reason, it is also called a double helical gear.
This design eliminates the side load caused by the single helical design,
because the side load of the two helical gears cancel each other out.
Herringbone gears are used for applications which require quiet,
high-speed, heavy-load operation. One example of an application like
this is the power take-off of a gas turbine.
The herringbone gear is easy to identify because it looks like the
spine of a fish.
PARALLEL
AXES
Figure 17. Herringbone Gear

Internal Gear
Gears can be classified as either internal or external. This describes
how the teeth are oriented on the gear, as shown in figure 18.
EXTERNAL
GEAR DRIVE
INTERNAL
GEAR DRIVE
Figure 18. Internal and External Gears
The internal gear drive uses one or more external gears to drive a
larger internal gear, as shown in figure 19. This type of gear drive is used
when a very large gear ratio is needed but the axes must be parallel and
the gear drive must be compact.
INTERNAL
GEAR
EXTERNAL
GEAR
Figure 19. Internal Gear Drive

One example of an internal gear drive is a planetary gear drive. This
type uses small gears called planets, which revolve around a central gear
called a sun gear, as shown in figure 20.
PINIONS
PLANET
PLANET CARRIER
GEARS
SUN GEAR ANNULUS
Figure 20. Planetary Gear Drive
Another type of internal gear drive is a harmonic gear drive. This

type of drive consists of a flexible external gear ring which is forced out
against an internal ring gear by an elliptical shaped wave generator. As
the wave generator rotates the flexible gear drives the external gear. It is
commonly used in precision applications such as robot axes because it
has no backlash or play in the gears.
ELLIPTICAL
WAVE
GENERATOR
FLEX
SPINE
INTERNAL
RING
GEAR
Figure 21. Harmonic Gear Drive

SEGMENT 2
SELF REVIEW
r This
we
Ans
1. The speed ratio of a gear drive is ______________
proportional to the gear ratio.
2. The torque ratio of a gear drive is _______________

proportional to the gear ratio.
3. A(n) ____________ axis gear drive is one in which the

driver and driven shafts lie side-by-side and point in the
same direction.
4. A worm gear drive is an example of a(n)

_______________________ axis gear drive.
5. The shafts of an intersecting gear drive are at a _________

angle to each other.
6. A rack and pinion gear drive is an example of a(n)

___________________ gear drive system.
7. The most basic type of gear, whose teeth are cut parallel to
the shaft axis, is known as a(n) ________________ gear.
8. A type of gear whose teeth are cut at an angle to the axis of

rotation and can be operated at higher speeds than a spur
gear is known as a(n) _________________ gear.

SEGMENT 3
SPUR GEAR DRIVE OPERATION
OBJECTIVE 7 DESCRIBE ELEVEN FEATURES OF A GEAR
his
dT Because gears mesh directly with each other, the shape and
Rea
dimensions of the gear teeth are very important. In order to understand

the operation of meshing gear teeth you must first learn the features of a
gear.
The main features of a gear are shown in figure 22 and explained in
the following paragraphs:
TOOTH
PROFILE
TOOTH
TOOTH SPACE
TOP
LAND
FACE
FLANK
BODY BOTTOM
LAND
ROOT
TOOTH
FILLET
Figure 22. Main Features of a Gear

• Tooth - The part of the gear which makes contact with the other
gear to transmit torque and speed.
• Tooth Space - The volume of space between two teeth of the
gear.
• Body - The part of the gear which does not have teeth.
• Face - The surface area of the tooth which is above the pitch
circle.
• Flank - The surface area of the tooth which is below the pitch
circle.
• Tooth Profile - The shape made by the edge of the tooth.
• Root - The point on the profile of the tooth where the profile
starts.
• Tooth Fillet - The line on the tooth edge which blends with the
root.
• Top Land - The surface area which is on top of the tooth.
• Bottom Land - The surface area which is on the bottom of the
tooth.
• Base Circle - The base circle is a circle from which the profile of
the teeth are created. Most gears use an involute profile. It is
created by the path made by unwinding a string from the base
circle, as shown in figure 23.
CORD BEING UNWOUND

INVOLUTE FROM A CYLINDER
CURVE
BASE
CIRCLE
Figure 23. Involute Profile Created by a String Unwound from a Base

Circle

OBJECTIVE 8 IDENTIFY THE TWELVE DIMENSIONS OF A GEAR
AND EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH
his
dT You have already learned the meanings of three important gear
Rea
dimensions: pitch, pitch circle, and pitch diameter. Some other important
dimensions of a gear are shown in figure 24 and explained in the
following paragraphs:
ADDENDUM
DEDENDUM
TOOTH SPACE
WIDTH
CIRCULAR
TOOTH WHOLE
THICKNESS DEPTH
OUTER GEAR BODY TOOTH

DIAMETER PRESSURE
ANGLE
BASE
DIAMETER FACE
WIDTH
PITCH
DIAMETER
Figure 24. Gear Dimensions and Features
• Face Width - This is the width as measured across the face of the
gear. This is an important dimension because it is used to specify
gear size. A thicker gear is needed for higher loads.
• Circular Tooth Thickness - The circular tooth thickness is
measured along the pitch circle from one side of a tooth to the
other side. It can also be measured in a straight line between the
two points on the pitch circle, in which case it is called the chordal
thickness. The tooth thickness is important for inspection of gear
wear. As gears wear, the thickness becomes smaller.
• Tooth Space Width - The width of a tooth space is the length
between two adjacent teeth as measured along the pitch circle. It is
important because it must be larger than the tooth thickness in
order to allow the gears to mesh smoothly.
• Pressure Angle - The pressure angle can be described as the
angle between a line which is tangent to the tooth profile at the
pitch circle and a radial line extending from the center of the gear.

The pressure angle affects how the gears transmit power between
each other. In general, a higher pressure angle has been found to
give better operation because it does not wear as quickly, it can
carry higher loads, and it allows higher speeds.
Two common pressure angles are in common use today: 14.5
degree and 20 degree. The 20 degree is the type you will most
often find on new machinery, while the 14.5 degree is very
common on older machinery. The 14.5 degree is mainly used when
replacing gears.
It is important to note that two gears must have the same pressure
angle in order to be used with each other. You cannot mesh gears
of different pressure angles together.
• Outer Diameter - This is the diameter of the circle which is
drawn through the top lands of the teeth. The outer diameter is not
used for calculations but it is important for two reasons. One is for
design of clearance of other machine elements, such as covers. The
other reason is that it is easily measured and can be used to
determine a dimension called the diametral pitch. The diametral
pitch is used to size the gear. This is very helpful when you need to
replace a gear on a machine.
• Base Circle Diameter - This is the diameter of the base circle. It
is important because it is the basis for many other gear dimensions.
However, you will not use this dimension unless you are designing
gears. Another dimension which is derived from the base diameter
is the base radius. It is equal to 1/2 of the base diameter.
• Addendum - The addendum is the distance from the pitch circle
to the top land. It coincides with the tooth face. Some spur gears
are made with addendums which are shorter than normal. These
are called stub tooth gears. This dimension is important only if you
are designing or making gears.
• Dedendum - The dedendum is the distance from the pitch circle
to the bottom land. It coincides with the tooth flank. This
dimension is important only if you are designing or making gears.
• Whole Depth - This is the sum of the dedendum and the
addendum. This dimension is important only if you are designing
or making gears.
• Number of Teeth - This is the number of teeth on the gear. It is
used calculate the gear ratio of the two gears so that the speed and
torque output of the drive can be determined. It is also used on the
shop floor to calculate the diametral pitch which is used to specify
replacement gears.
• Pitch Diameter - This is the diameter of the pitch circle. The pitch
diameter is important because it defines the size of the gear and is
used to calculate the speed and torque which is transmitted from
one gear to another.

• Diametral Pitch - The diametral pitch is the ratio of the number
of teeth on the gear to the pitch diameter. This can be stated in
mathematical form as follows.
FORMULA: DIAMETRAL PITCH
N
DP =
D
Where:
DP = Diametral Pitch
N = Number of teeth
D = Pitch Diameter
The diametral pitch is a measure of the number of teeth per unit of

pitch diameter. This indicates the relative size of the teeth on the gear.
Diametral pitch is important because two gears must have the same size
teeth in order to mesh with each other. This means they must have the
same diametral pitch.
The diametral pitch allows you to determine if gears of different
diameters or different numbers of teeth have the same size teeth and
therefore can mesh properly. In a later LAP, you will learn a simple
method to determine the diametral pitch of a gear by measuring the outer
diameter. This is very helpful when you need to replace a gear on the
shop floor.

Activity 1. Gear Feature Identification
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will examine the gears supplied
with the 950-ME to locate the features and some of the
dimensions just described. It is very important to be able to
do this in order to inspect gears for wear and to design
gears.
This ❑ 1. Locate the Gear Drives Panel 1 on your 950-ME and place it on
Do
the overhead rack.

You should see a number of gears mounted on this panel. They are
all spur gears, but they are of different sizes.
❑ 2. Remove the gear from the panel which is labeled with a 1 on the
panel and place it in your hand.
❑ 3. Examine the gear to see of you can identify its features. Place a
letter in the table next to the feature you locate on the gear. The
letters identify gear locations shown in figure 25.
GEAR FEATURE LETTER
Top Land
Bottom Land
Body
Tooth
Tooth Profile
Tooth Face
Tooth Flank
Root
Tooth Space
C G
E
B
F
D
H
A
Figure 25. Gear Feature Locations

❑ 4. Use a rule or caliper to measure the sizes of the following features
on the gears labeled 1, 4, and 5.
Notice in the table that each gear is labeled with the number of
teeth (N), diametral pitch (DP), and the pressure angle (either 14.5
or 20). This is done so that you will be able to compare the
dimensions of each gear.
GEAR 1 GEAR 2 GEAR 3 GEAR 4 GEAR 5 GEAR 6 GEAR 7

GEAR FEATURE 12DP, 12DP, 12DP, 16DP, 16DP, 16DP, 16DP,
36N, 14.5 24N, 14.5 48N, 14.5 24N, 20 60N, 20 64N, 14.5 80N, 14.5
Whole Depth
Tooth Thickness
Face Width
Outer Diameter
You should find that gears with the same diametral pitch (DP)
have the same whole depth and tooth thickness because their teeth
are the same size. This means that Gears 1, 2, and 3 are the same,
and that Gears 4, 5, 6, and 7 will be the same.
Notice that the outer diameters of the gears are slightly different
even when the diametral pitch is the same. A gear with a given
diametral pitch will be larger if it has more teeth.
Also, notice that the face width of the gears is the same. This is
related to the load capability of the gears. You will learn more
about this in a later LAP.

❑ 5. Now compare the shape of the tooth profiles of gear 5 and gear 6.
These two gears have the same diametral pitch but different
pressure angles. Gear 5 has an angle of 20 degrees and gear 6 has
an angle of 14.5 degrees. What do you notice about the shapes of
the two gears?
You should see that the teeth of gear 6 are steeper than the teeth of
gear 5. Gears with a 14.5 lower degree pressure angles have
steeper teeth than those with higher degree pressure angles.
❑ 6. Perform the following substeps to test the ability of gears of
various types to mesh properly.
A. Pick up gears 1 and 2 with one gear in each hand.
B. Mesh the two gears together and roll them, as shown in figure
26. Notice whether the gears roll easily or not.
Gears Mesh and roll easily ______________________(Yes/No)
You should find that they mesh and roll easily because they
have the same diametral pitch (12) and the same pressure angle
(14.5). However, you should notice that they do not have the
same number of teeth and therefore are of different sizes.
DRIVER GEAR
DRIVEN GEAR
Figure 26. Mesh and Roll of Gears

C. Mesh and roll Gears 6 and 7 as you did in the previous substep.
These two gears also have the same diametral pitch and
pressure angle. In this case, it is 16DP and 14.5 degrees.
Record your observations.
You should find that they also mesh and roll easily.
D. Mesh and roll Gears 4 and 5. These two gears also have the
same diametral pitch and pressure angle. In this case, it is 16DP
and 20 degrees. Record your observations.
You should find that they also mesh and roll easily.
In the remaining substeps, you will mix the gear types to see
how affects the mesh.
E. Mesh and roll Gears 2 and 4. These two gears have the same
pressure angle (14.5) but a different diametral pitch (12 vs. 16).
You should find that these gears do not mesh and roll easily.
F. Mesh and roll Gears 5 and 6. These two gears have the same
diametral pitch (16) but a different pressure angle (20 vs. 14.5).
You should find that these gears do not mesh and roll easily.
These last two substeps show that gears must both have the
same pressure angle and diametral pitch in order to mesh
correctly. They do not, however, have to be of the same size or
have the same number of teeth.
❑ 7. Replace the gears in the correct locations on the storage panel.

OBJECTIVE 9 IDENTIFY THE TEN DIMENSIONS AND FEATURES OF
A GEAR DRIVE AND EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH
his
dT Now that you know the features and dimensions of a single gear, the
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next step is to learn about the key dimensions and features of two gears
that mesh with each other. These are shown in figures 27 and 28 and
explained in the following paragraphs:
PITCH POINT
LINE OF
CENTERS
PINION GEAR
PITCH PITCH
CIRCLE CIRCLE
CENTER
DISTANCE
Figure 27. Dimensions and Features of Meshing Gears
• Pinion - When the gears are of different sizes, the smaller gear is
called the pinion. The pinion can be attached to either the driver or
the driven shafts, depending on the change in output torque and
speed desired.
• Gear - The larger gear is called the bull gear or simply the gear.
• Line of Centers - The line of centers is the line that passes
through the centers of the two gears. It is important because is used
as a reference for a number of dimensions such as center distance
and pressure angle.
• Center Distance - The center distance is the distance between the
centers of the gears.

• Line of Action - As shown in figure 28, the line of action is the
path made by the point where the two gears make contact. For an
involute profile, this path follows a line which is tangent to the two
base circles. It is used to determine the pressure angle.
PINION
LINE OF
ACTION POINT OF TOOTH
CONTACT
PRESSURE PITCH POINT
ANGLE ( O )
WORKING
DEPTH
CLEARANCE BACKLASH
GEAR
Figure 28. Features and Dimensions of Meshing Gears
• Pressure Angle - The pressure angle is the angle between the

line of action and a line which is perpendicular to the line of
centers, as shown in figure 28. It is actually a feature of the gear
tooth profile as well. The pressure angle of the gear tooth profile is
generated based on this pressure angle.
As you can see, the pressure angle made by the line of action
depends on the distance between the gears.
The actual angle is called the operating pressure angle. The angle
to which the gear profile is cut is called the generating pressure
angle. If the gear positions are adjusted correctly, the operating
pressure angle should be the same as the generating pressure angle.

• Pitch Point - This is the point on the line of centers where the line
of action crosses it. The pitch point determines the diameters of the
pitch circles of the two gears. Since the pressure angle determines
where the line of action crosses the line of centers, the pitch diameter
of a gear is determined by the pressure angle and the base circle.
Notice that the pitch point(where the line of action crosses the line
of centers) is affected by the distance between centers because this
causes the pressure angle to change. This means that the actual
pitch circles of the gears depend in part on the center distance of
the gears. As with the pressure angle, the actual pitch circle
determined by both the base circles and the center distance is
called the operating pitch circle. The pitch circle which is
determined by the base circle and the generating pressure angle is
called the generating pitch circle.
• Clearance - This is the space between the top land of a tooth and
the bottom land of the space between the tooth it meshes with. It is
important to have some clearance in order to keep the tooth of each
gear from jamming into bottom lands of each other.
• Working Depth - The working depth is the amount by which the
meshing teeth engage each other. It is the distance between the top
land of one tooth and the top land of the tooth with which it
meshes. This is also equal to the whole depth minus the clearance.
The working depth must be less than the whole depth or the gears
will interfere with each other.
• Backlash - Backlash is the difference between the thickness of a
tooth and the width of the tooth space. Most gears have some
backlash built into them in order to allow the gears to mesh
smoothly. This backlash is made by making the tooth thickness
slightly smaller than the tooth width.

OBJECTIVE 10 DESCRIBE THE OPERATION OF A SPUR GEAR DRIVE
dT
his A spur gear drive transfers the power between two parallel shafts by
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placing the centers of the two gears close enough together to cause the
teeth to mesh, as shown in figure 29. As the driver gear rotates, one or
more of its teeth will contact one or more of the teeth of the driven gear.
The interaction between these teeth is a combination of rolling and
sliding, causing the driven gear to rotate.
Figure 29. Meshing of Spur Gear Teeth

The gear teeth of a spur gear are cut parallel to the axis of rotation so
that each tooth of the driver gear contacts the tooth of the driven gear
across its entire face width.
TOOTH
FACE
WIDTH
Figure 30. Spur Gear Tooth Width

For basic transmission of force and motion, the gear teeth do not
need to have any particular shape. However, for quiet and vibrationless
motion, the rotational speeds of the two gears must remain constant as
the gears turn. It has been proven mathematically that this will occur if a
line which is normal (perpendicular) to both of the tooth profiles at the
point of contact passes through a constant point on the line of centers
while the two teeth remain in contact, as shown in figure 31. This proof
is called the Fundamental Law of Gearing, and the point through which
the normal line passes is called the pitch point.
GEAR 1
CENTER
NORMAL TO
TANGENT
PITCH
RADIUS 1
PITCH POINT
TANGENT TO
PITCH TOOTH
RADIUS 2 PROFILES
= PRESSURE
ANGLE
GEAR 2
CENTER
Figure 31. Law of Gearing

Any two gears which have teeth that satisfy the Law of Gearing will
have constant pitch diameters and therefore a constant ratio of speed and
torque. This type of motion is referred to as conjugate action.
There are actually many types of tooth profiles that satisfy the Law
of Gearing. Two of these are involute and cycloidal. Most spur gears use
the involute tooth design, as shown in figure 32. The reason for choosing
this profile is that it not only satisfies the Law of Gearing but also
provides the following other advantages:
• Conjugate Action is Independent of Center Distance - This
means that the gears do not have to be perfectly positioned with
their pitch circles tangent to each other in order to maintain a
constant speed ratio. In other words, the amount of backlash does
not affect the speed ratio.
• Straight Tooth Rack - The involute tooth profile becomes
straight when it is laid out on a linear rack. This makes involute
tooth design easy to manufacture.
• One Cutter - One cutter can generate all gear tooth numbers of
the same diametral pitch.
INVOLUTE TOOTH PROFILE
Figure 32. Involute Tooth Design
Another benefit of the involute tooth shape, which is also shared by

some of the other tooth shapes, is that the teeth tend roll more than they
slip. This reduces friction and helps the gears to operate smoothly.
Also, notice that the gear teeth have an involute design on both sides
so that the gears can drive in either direction.

Backlash
Spur gears are designed with a small amount of clearance between
the backside of the driver gear tooth and the driven tooth behind it, as
shown in figure 33. This clearance is called backlash. It is created by
making the teeth slightly smaller than the tooth spaces.
BACKLASH
PITCH
CIRCLES
Figure 33. Spur Gear Backlash
Backlash is needed in order to allow the lubricant to get to each gear

tooth and to allow the teeth to mesh properly. It is important that the
backlash be neither too much or too little.
Spur gears are made of many different materials including cast iron,
forged steel, machined steel, brass, bronze , and even plastic. Cast iron
has good resistance to wear but is brittle. Unhardened low-carbon steel is
sometimes used on low power applications, but it is must be hardened
for higher power applications like those commonly seen in industry.
Spur gears are designed to be mounted with either fixed bores with
keyways, as shown in figure 34, or with bushings.
Figure 34. Spur Gear Construction

SEGMENT 3
SELF REVIEW
r This
we
Ans
1. _________ ___________ is the volume of space between
two teeth of a gear.
2. The characteristic shape made by the edge of a tooth is

known as the _________ ___________.
3. When the gears of a gear drive are of differing sizes, the

smaller gear is known as the __________.
4. The _____________ of _____________ is the path made by

the point where the two gears make contact.
5. _______________ is the difference between the thickness of

a tooth and the width of the tooth space.
6. Power is transferred between the two gears of a gear drive

via the _______________ of the gear teeth.

SEGMENT 4
SPUR GEAR INSTALLATION
OBJECTIVE 11 DESCRIBE HOW TO INSTALL AND ALIGN

A SPUR GEAR DRIVE SYSTEM
dT
his In many cases, installation of a spur gear drive is very easy because
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the gear drive design uses shaft bearings which have a fixed mounting.
This fixes the locations of the gears, and no alignment is therefore
necessary. However, some gear drives are designed so that the backlash
can be adjusted. These types of drives must be aligned.
In either case, the general procedure for installing a gear drive is as
follows:
Step 1. Mount and level the motor and the driven component
The shafts must be level so that the gear teeth contact each other
across their entire width. The shafts should also be checked for run-out
and a soft foot. Run-out will cause the shaft to wobble making the gear
teeth mesh improperly. This in turn causes the gears to wear quickly.
Ideally, the shaft run-out should be no more than 0.010 inches.
Step 2. Inspect the gears for cleanliness and wear. Clean or

replace if necessary.
If a gear has nicks, burrs, gouges, or is excessively worn, replace the
gear. You will learn more about measurement of gear tooth wear in
another LAP.
Make sure that the gear does not have any dirt. Dirt can get mixed in
with the oil that lubricates the gears and become deposited on the teeth.
Use a stiff brush and to remove dirt form the gear and then wipe clean.
Step 3. Mount the gears onto the shafts

The gears should be attached to the shafts using either a finished
bore hub and a key fastener or with a bushing.

Step 4. Mesh the gears
Move the shafts together so that the gears mesh. The position of the
gear’s shafts should adjusted so that there is a little backlash in the gears.
In step 6, you will adjust it precisely.
If the shaft centers are fixed, this step is not necessary.
Step 5. Align the gears

Just as with v-belts and chain drives, it is important to align gears.
Misalignment will cause the gears to either wear or fail. This
misalignment can appear in several ways, as shown in figure 35.
ANGULAR TOOTH PARALLEL

MISALIGNMENT OFFSET MISALIGNMENT
Figure 35. Types of Misalignment

The gears can be aligned by first leveling the two shafts using a spirit
level. If this has already been done as part of mounting the motor, you
can skip this step and go to the next step. The next step is to place a
straight edge against the faces of the gears and check the parallelism of
the shafts, as shown in figure 36.
The faces of the gears should be made so that they are flush against
the straight edge, as shown in figure 36. This means that the shafts are
parallel and the gears are aligned.
STRAIGHT
12
DRIVEN EDGE
11
GEAR
10
9
8
DRIVER
7
GEAR
6
5
4
3
2
1
Figure 36. Alignment of Gears with Straight Edge
Step 6. Adjust the backlash

It is important that the backlash be set to the proper amount. It
cannot be too much or too little. The amount of backlash is determined
using either a table or a formula. It can be measured using a dial
indicator and is adjusted by moving the centers of the shafts either closer
or further apart. You will learn more about backlash in the next segment.
Step 7. Readjust the alignment and tighten the mounting bolts

After the positions of the shafts have been set, the mounting bolts
can be tightened. As you do this, use a straight edge to keep the
alignment of the gears. After you have tightened the bolts, check the
alignment one more time to make sure that it is still aligned. This is
done because tightening the mounting hardware can often shift the
alignment of the shafts.
Step 8. Apply lubrication

Metal gears must be lubricated. In most cases, you will use a type of
oil called gear oil, which is made for gear lubrication. This oil can be
applied by hand or with some type of automatic system.

SKILL 3 INSTALL AND ALIGN A SPUR GEAR DRIVE SYSTEM
WITH ADJUSTABLE CENTERS
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will perform steps 1-5 of the
procedure to assemble and align a spur gear drive, which
will be used to drive the prony brake. You will not,
however, run the drive system in this skill. Instead, you will
go to the next skill where you will continue the installation
procedure by performing step 6 of the procedure, which is
to adjust the backlash of the gear drive.
This ❑ 1. Perform the following safety checkout to prepare for working with
Do
power transmission equipment. Make sure that you are able to

answer yes to each item before proceeding.
YES/NO SAFETY CHECKOUT
Wearing safety glasses
Wearing tight fitting clothes
Ties, watches, rings, and other jewelry are removed
Long hair is tied up or put it in a cap or under shirt
Wearing heavy duty shoes
Wearing short sleeves or long sleeves are rolled up
Floor is not wet
❑ 2. Perform a lockout/tagout on the Motor Control Unit’s safety

switch.

❑ 3. Place the Variable Speed Gear Motor on the work surface.
It should be mounted to a small mounting plate, as shown in figure
37.
Figure 37. Variable Speed Gear Motor

❑ 4. Perform the following substeps to mount and level the Variable
Speed Gear Motor.
A. Select four Gear Motor Risers from Shaft Panel 2.
B. Make sure that the motor base, risers, and mounting area of the
work surface shown in figure 38 are free of dirt, rust, and burrs.
C. Position the Gear Motor over the set of holes on the 950-ME
work surface, as shown in figure 38.
The outlines of the other components to be mounted are also
shown.
GEAR 5
SHAFT 2(8”)
SHAFT 1(12”)
GEAR
GEAR 4 MOTOR
Figure 38. Position of Components
D. Place one Gear Motor Riser under each of the motor feet.
E. Locate four bolts with the specifications 5/16-18UNC-2A x 2-1/2
Hex Head, along with compatible flat washers, lock washers, and
nuts.
F. Fasten the motor base and risers to the work surface by
assembling the bolts, washers, and nuts.
Use a criss-cross pattern to tighten the bolts.
G. Check the shaft for run-out. Record below the amount of run-out.
Run-out: _____________________________________(in/mm)
The run-out should be less than 0.002 inches.
e This NOTE
tic
No
The shaft of the gear motor is significantly harder to turn than

that of the constant speed motor. With strength, it will turn.

H. Check for motor shaft end-float.
End Float ____________________________________(in/mm)
It should be less than 0.002 inches.
I. Check the level of the motor shaft. Shim the motor feet as
needed.
Feeler Gage Leaf Thickness______________________(in/mm)
Effective Level Length _________________________(in/mm)
Mounting Bolt Distance_________________________(in/mm)
Shim Ratio _________________________________________
Shim Thickness _______________________________(in/mm)

❑ 5. Perform the following substeps to mount Shaft No. 1 and pillow
block bearings.
A. Select four Bearing Standoffs from Shaft Panel 1.
B. Make sure that the standoffs, pillow block mounting surface,
and mounting area of the work surfaces, shown in figure 38, are
free of dirt, rust and burrs.
C. Place the four standoffs on the 950-ME work surface.
D. Remove two pillow block bearings from Shaft Panel 1.
E. Place the pillow block bearings on the standoffs over the hole
locations shown for Shaft 1.
F. Locate four bolts with the specifications of 3/8-16UNC-2A x
4-1/2 Hex Head, along with the compatible flat washers, lock
washers, and nuts.
G. Fasten the pillow block bearings and the standoffs to the work
surface by assembling the bolts, washers, and nuts.
Hand tighten only.
H. Select a 12-inch shaft from Shaft Panel 1.
I. Slide the shaft through the two pillow block bearings. Position
it as shown in figure 38.
J. Tighten the set screws on each bearing to lock the bearing.
K. Tighten the pillow block bearing mounting bolts.
L. Turn the shaft by hand to make sure it turns freely.
If not, loosen the bolts and adjust the positions of the bearings.
M. Check the driven shaft for run-out.
Run-out: _____________________________________(in/mm)
The shaft should have no more than 0.002 inches run-out.

N. Level the driven shaft. Shim the bearing standoffs as needed.
Place the shims between the work surface and the standoffs.
Feeler Gage Leaf Thickness______________________(in/mm)
Effective Level Length _________________________(in/mm)
Mounting Bolt Distance_________________________(in/mm)
Shim Ratio _________________________________________
Shim Thickness _______________________________(in/mm)

❑ 6. Repeat Step 5 in a similar manner to mount Shaft 2 (8 inch shaft)
to the worksurface in the location shown in figure 38.
❑ 7. Install the prony brake on the #2 shaft and work surface in the
location shown in figure 38.
This brake will be used in later skills to demonstrate how the
torque is affected by a gear ratio.
❑ 8. Obtain Gears 4 and 5 from Gear Drive Panel 1. Inspect the two
gears for dirt.
If you find any foreign material on gears, clean them.
❑ 9. Perform the following substeps to mount Gear 4 to the driver shaft.
This gear is the pinion in this application.
These steps are the same steps you used to install the prony brake
drum.
A. Locate the set screw hole which is drilled into the side of the
hub of Gear 4, as shown in figure 39.
SET SCREW
Figure 39. Set Screw on Hub
B. Use a hex key wrench to back out the set screw so that it is not
extending into the shaft hole.
C. Clean the shaft’s key seat and the gear hub’s key seat with a
wire brush to make sure that no dirt or burs are in the keyseats.
D. Select a 3/16 x 1 inch square key from your key stock.
E. Slide the key into the keyseat of Shaft 1.
The key should fit into the keyseat without forcing it. If it is too
tight, take it out and measure it to see which part is out of
tolerance. Select another key from your stock and try it.
F. Check the key for play when it is in the keyseat by wiggling it.
There should be no play. If there is play, replace the key.
G. Remove the key from the shaft keyseat and insert it into the
pinion keyseat. It also should slide in without forcing it and
have no play.
H. Remove the key from the pinion hub and insert it into the shaft
keyseat. Line it up flush with the end of the shaft.
I. Pick up the pinion (Gear 4) in your hand and line it up in front
of the shaft so that the hub’ s key seat is in line with the key on
the shaft.
J. Then slide the pinion hub onto the shaft until the end of the
face of the gear is flush with the end of the shaft, as shown in
figure 40.
The hub should slide on without using tools. If it doesn’t, pull
it off and check the dimensions.
Figure 40. Gear Hub Attached to Shaft 1
K. Tighten the set screw onto the key.

❑ 10. Repeat Step 9 in a similar manner to mount Gear 5 to Shaft 2, the
driven shaft.
The setup should now look like figure 41.
Figure 41. Current Setup
❑ 11. Loosen the bolts on Shaft 1 and position it so that the gears mesh.

❑ 12. Check the gear alignment by placing a straight edge flush against
the faces of the two gears, as shown in figure 42.
The driver gear will be adjusted to align with the driven gear. In
real world applications, it is usually easier to adjust the driver’s
position than it is to reposition all of the drive system components.
Figure 42. Straight Edge Check for Gear Alignment
If the face of the driver gear is also flush against the straight edge,
the gears are aligned and the shafts are parallel. Proceed to Step 14
to tighten the bolts. If they are not all touching, proceed to Step 13.
❑ 13. Move Shaft 1 to a position where all four edges of the gears are
touching the straight edge.
❑ 14. Tighten the bolts on Shaft 1 in a criss-cross pattern until the bolts
are tight.
e This
tic NOTE
No
You will not couple the motor to shaft 1 until later in this LAP.
❑ 15. Recheck the alignment with the straight edge after the bolts are
tightened. Repeat alignment Steps 12-14 if necessary.
Leave your setup in place and proceed to the next objective and
skill.
In a later skill, you will continue the installation process by
determining the proper amount of backlash for the gear drive.

OBJECTIVE 12 DESCRIBE THE FUNCTION OF BACKLASH
his
dT Backlash is defined as the clearance between the back of the engaged
Rea
tooth of the driver gear and the front of the tooth of the driven gear
immediately behind it as measured along the pitch circle. This is shown
in figure 44.
BACKLASH
PITCH
CIRCLES
Figure 43. Gear Backlash
A certain amount of backlash is needed in a gear drive to enable the

gears to mesh smoothly and to allow lubrication to get to each tooth. If
the backlash is too small, the there will be more friction between the
gears, which can cause the gears to run roughly, have added load due to
friction, wear out quickly, and even lock up.
It is also important to not have too much backlash. This can cause
the gears to make more noise and vibration , create excessive wear on the
faces of the teeth, and even cause the teeth to break.
Some backlash is built into gears by making the teeth slightly
narrower than the spaces between the teeth. If the gears are adjusted so
that their pitch circles are tangent with each other, as shown in figure 44,
the gears will have the correct amount of backlash, at least when they are
new.
Backlash can also be changed by adjusting positions of the gears’
shaft centers. As the center distance is increased, the backlash becomes
greater.

The ideal center distance is that which causes the gears’ pitch circles
to be tangent to each other, as shown in figure 44. In this position, the
gears are said to be in mesh. This applies to new gears as well as used
gears.
LINE OF
CENTERS
PITCH PITCH
CIRCLE CIRCLE
Figure 44. Gear Center Distance Adjusted so that Gears are in Mesh

OBJECTIVE 13 DESCRIBE HOW TO DETERMINE THE ALLOWABLE
BACKLASH IN A GEAR DRIVE
his
dT Whether gears are new or used, the backlash should remain within a
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certain range in order to operate smoothly with minimum wear on the
teeth. This allowable range of backlash for any two gears can be
determined using a table like the one shown in figure 45 if you know the
diametral pitch and the center distance. This table was developed by the
American Gear Manufacturers’ Association (AGMA) and is published in
the Machinery’s Handbook, as well as in other sources.
COARSE - PITCH GEARS

Center Normal Diametral Pitches
Distance
(inches) 0.5 - 1.99 2 - 3.49 3.5 - 5.99 6 - 9.99 10 - 19.99
Up to 5 0.005 - .015
Over 5 to 10 0.010 - .020 0.010 - .020
Over 10 to 20 0.020 - .030 0.015 - .025 0.010 - .020
Over 20 to 30 0.030 - .040 0.025 - .030 0.020 - .030
Over 30 to 40 0.040 - .060 0.035 - .045 0.030 - .040 0.025 - .040
Over 40 to 50 0.050 - .070 0.040 - .055 0.035 - .050 0.030 - .040
Over 50 to 80 0.060 - .080 0.045 - .085 0.040 - .060
Over 80 to 100 0.070 - .095 0.050 - .080
Over 100 to 120 0.080 - .10
Figure 45. AGMA Recommendations for Allowable Backlash for Coarse

Pitch Gears
The diametral pitch can be determined using either a table or by

calculating it if you have the number of teeth and the pitch diameter. The
center distance is the average of the sum of the two pitch diameters.
FORMULA: DIAMETRAL PITCH
N
DP =
P
FORMULA: CENTER DISTANCE
D1 + D2
C =
2
For new gears, they can be positioned correctly by measuring the

backlash. If it is within the allowable range, the gears are positioned with
the pitch circles tangent to each other or very close to it. This method is
often easier than measuring the center distance.

SKILL 4 DETERMINE THE ALLOWABLE BACKLASH IN A GEAR DRIVE
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will use the AGMA table to
determine the allowable backlash for various gear sets,
including the set (Gears 4 and 5) now set up on your
trainer.
This ❑ 1. Perform the following substeps to calculate the range of allowable

Do
backlash for the following gear set.
GEAR FEATURE PINION GEAR

No. of Teeth 12 48
Pitch Diameter (In) 0.750 3.000
A. Calculate the diametral pitch of each gear.

It should be the same for both gears but it is good idea to check
this.
Diametral Pitch of Pinion = ____________________________
Diametral Pitch of Gear = ______________________________

The solution is as follows:
N
DP =
P
DP = 12/0.75 = 16
DP = 48/3.00 = 16
B. Calculate the center distance of the two gears.
Center Distance _______________________________(in/mm)
The solution is as follows:
D1 + D2
C =
2
= (0.75 + 3.00)/2 = 1.875
C. Look up in the table of figure 45 the allowable backlash range
for a gear set with a center distance of 1.875 inches and a
diametral pitch of 16.
Allowable Backlash Range ______________________(in/mm)
You should find the backlash to be 0.005 - 0.015 inch.

❑ 2. Calculate the range of allowable backlash for the following gear
set.
Use the same procedure you used in the previous step. Fill in the
data blanks in the table as part of your process.

No. of Teeth 32 80
Diametral Pitch
Center Distance (In/mm)
Allowable Backlash Range _________________________(in/mm)

Your answer should be 0.010 - 0.020 inch.
set.

No. of Teeth 80 120
Diametral Pitch

set. This is the gear set that is now set up on the 950-ME.
GEAR FEATURE PINION (GEAR 4) GEAR (GEAR 5)

No. of Teeth 24 60
Diametral Pitch

In the next segment, you will learn how to measure the backlash
and then adjust the gear set (Gears 4 and 5) on the 950-ME to the
backlash range you just calculated. Once done, you will complete
the installation procedure and then operate the gear drive.

SEGMENT 4
SELF REVIEW
r This
we
Ans
1. Some types of gear drives are designed so that the backlash
can be _____________.
2. The ______________ of a gear drive can be accomplished

through the use of a straight edge or a length of string.
3. Metal gears must be ______________, which is

accomplished with gear oil.
4. ______________ is defined as the clearance between the

back of the engaged tooth of the driver gear and the front of
the engaged tooth of the driven gear.
5. A certain amount of backlash is necessary to enable the

gears to mesh smoothly and to allow _______________ to
get to each tooth.
6. The appropriate amount of backlash that should be used in a

gear drive can be determined by locating the
______________ pitch of the gears in a table.

SEGMENT 5
SPUR GEAR ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE 14 DESCRIBE TWO METHODS OF MEASURING

SPUR GEAR BACKLASH
his
dT The actual backlash between two spur gears can be measured using
Rea
one of the following two methods:

• Direct Dial Indicator Measurement
• Indirect Dial Indicator Measurement
With both of these methods the basic concept used to perform the
measurement is to hold one gear fixed and rotate the other gear back and
forth. The amount of movement of the teeth at or near the pitch circle is
the backlash, as shown in figure 46.
DRIVER GEAR
ROTATED BACK
DRIVEN AND FORTH
GEAR FIXED
AMOUNT OF
MOVEMENT
BACKLASH
Figure 46. Measurement of Backlash

With the direct method, the probe of a dial indicator is placed
directly on a tooth and oriented perpendicular to the face of the tooth, as
shown in figure 47.
ROTATE BACK
AND FORTH 90
0
10
80 20
70 30
60 40
50
90º
DRIVEN BEZEL OF
GEAR DIAL INDICATOR
DRIVER
GEAR
Figure 47. Direct Indicator Measurement
With the indirect method, a bar of some type is attached to the shaft
and the indicator measures its movement, as shown in figure 48. To
determine the backlash you must divide the measured value by the ratio
of the distance along the bar from the shaft center to the indicator point
to the pitch radius.
0
90 10
80 20
70 30
60 40
50
PITCH ARM BACKLASH

RADIUS RADIUS
Figure 48. Indirect Measurement
The direct method is most often used for larger gears where the teeth
are large enough to allow the indicator probe to contact a tooth. The
indirect method is used where either the gears are not easy to access or
the gear teeth are very small.

SKILL 5 MEASURE GEAR BACKLASH
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will use the direct method with
an indicator to measure the backlash in the two gears you
assembled in the previous skill. This is a skill you can use
either to determine if the gears are worn or to adjust the
center distance. When gears become worn, the backlash
increases.
This ❑ 1. Make sure the lockout/tagout is still in place. If not, make it so.
Do
❑ 2. Continuing from the previous skill, perform the following substeps

to see if you can feel the backlash in the gears.
A. Hold the shaft of the driver gear firmly in your hand so that it
cannot move.
B. Use your other hand to rotate the driven gear clockwise and
then counterclockwise as far as it can go in either direction.
The amount the gear rotates is the backlash. In the next step,
you will measure the amount of backlash.
C. Release the two shafts.
❑ 3. Set up a dial indicator with a magnetic base so that its probe is
touching the gear tooth of the driven gear and is oriented 90
degrees to the tooth, as shown in figure 49. You will have to
position the probe at an angle to the tooth to do this.
Figure 49. Orientation of Dial Indicator

❑ 4. Adjust the position of the probe so that it is retracted slightly while
still touching the gear.
❑ 5. Hold the driver shaft (Shaft 1) in your hand so that it cannot move.
❑ 6. Rotate the driven shaft (Shaft 2) with your hand in one direction
until the tooth of the driven gear contacts the tooth of the driver
gear. Record the reading of the indicator.
Indicator Reading 1 _______________________________(in/mm)
❑ 7. Rotate the driven shaft with your hand in the other direction until
the tooth of the driven gear contacts the driver tooth on the other
side of it. Record this reading.
Indicator Reading 2 _______________________________(in/mm)
❑ 8. Calculate the backlash by subtracting the two readings you just
recorded.
Backlash = Reading 1- Reading 2
Backlash = _____________________________________(in/mm)
The amount of backlash you measure will depend on how you
assembled the gears.
❑ 9. Use a pencil or felt tip pen to mark the meshed gear teeth, as
shown in figure 50.
In the next skill, you will measure the backlash again after the gear
positions are adjusted. It is important to use the same teeth to
measure the backlash because it can vary between sets of teeth.
MARK ON
TOOTH
Figure 50. Mark on Gear
❑ 10. Leave the indicator in position and proceed to the next skill.

SKILL 6 ADJUST THE BACKLASH IN A GEAR DRIVE
TO A SPECIFIED AMOUNT
Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will adjust the backlash to be
within the allowable range which was calculated in a
previous skill. To do this, you will adjust the center
distance by moving the driven gear. This is a skill you will
not use if the shafts have fixed centers.
Once you have adjusted the backlash, you will then
apply lubrication and run the gear drive.
This ❑ 1. Make sure the lockout/tagout is still in place. If not, make it so.
Do
❑ 2. Continuing from the last skill, record the allowable range of

backlash you calculated in an earlier skill for the gear set now
attached to the shafts. Also, record the initial backlash measured in
the last skill.
Range of Allowable Backlash _______________________(in/mm)
Initial Backlash __________________________________(in/mm)
If the initial backlash is within the allowable range, proceed to step

8. If it is above or below the range, proceed to Step 3.
❑ 3. Loosen the bolts on the driver Shaft so that the driver gear’s
position can be adjusted.
❑ 4. Adjust the position of the driver gear so that it is closer to the
driven gear if the initial backlash in Step 2 is higher than the range
of allowable backlash. If it is below the range, move the driver
gear further away.
❑ 5. Recheck the alignment of the gears using a straight edge. Adjust
the alignment if necessary.
❑ 6. Tighten the bolts on the driver shaft’s mounts using a criss-cross
pattern.
❑ 7. Use the indicator to recheck the backlash. Record your new value.
Remember to match up the dots with each other so that you are
measuring backlash at the same point.
Backlash _______________________________________(in/mm)
If the backlash is within the range, you can proceed to Step 8. If it
is outside the range, repeat Steps 3-7 until the backlash is within
the range.

❑ 8. Perform the following substeps to couple the Variable Speed
Motor to the shaft.
A. Loosen the bolts on the Variable Speed Motor and pull the
motor back away from the shaft and pillow block bearings.
B. Obtain the flexible jaw hub for the Variable Speed Motor from
Gear Panel 1.
It is the same as the coupling hub you used with the Constant
Speed Motor, except that the bore is 1/2 inch instead of 5/8
inch.
C. Slide the hub onto the Motor Shaft and lock it on the shaft with
the key set screw.
D. Locate one of the two flexible jaw coupling hubs which have a
5/8-inch bore and slide it on Shaft 2. Lock it into place by
turning its set screw with a hex key wrench.
E. Place the spider on one of the hubs.
F. Move the motor forward so that the two hubs engage.
G. Set the gap to 0.5 inches using a rule.
H. Tighten the motor mounting bolts.
I. Use the straight-edge and feeler gage method to align the
coupling.
Review LAP 3 if needed for the details of this procedure.
❑ 9. Apply lubrication to the gears by lightly spraying them with teflon
lubricant.
Normally, you would use a gear oil, but this would get thrown
from the gears, creating a mess.
❑ 10. Perform the following substeps to start the Variable Speed Gear
Motor.
A. Make sure that the safety switch power cord is plugged into a
wall outlet.
B. Connect the Gear Motor’s power cord to the Motor Control
Unit through the Motor Port.
C. Adjust the speed control knob on the Motor Control Unit to
zero (fully CCW).
D. Make sure that the Motor Power switch is in the OFF or down
position.
E. Install the guard.
WARNING
ning Do not operate the mechanical drive system without the guard
ar
W
in place. Also, do not attempt to open or bypass the guard at any

time during operation. Performing any of these actions will create
a hazardous situation.
F. Remove the lockout/tagout.

G. Turn on the safety switch.

H. Make sure that no one is near the motor.
I. Turn on the Gear Motor by moving the Motor Power switch to
the ON or up position.
The motor should run slowly or not at all because the speed
control knob is set to zero.
❑ 11. Gradually increase the motor speed by slowly turning the speed
control knob clockwise.
The motor should increase in speed and the gears should run
smoothly.
❑ 12. Experiment with your ability to operate the gear drive at different
speeds.
As you do this notice the amount of noise created by the gears.
❑ 13. Reduce the motor speed to its minimum using the speed control
knob.
❑ 14. Turn off the gear motor by moving the Motor Power switch to the
down position.
❑ 15. Turn off the safety switch.
❑ 16. Perform a lockout/tagout.
❑ 17. Leave your setup in place and proceed to the activity.

Activity 2. Gear Drive Analysis
Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will continue from the previous skill
to measure the torque and speed output of the gear drive
to prove that the formulas you learned in Segments 1 and
2 actually work.
This ❑ 1. Continuing directly from the previous skill, turn on the motor and
Do
increase its speed to the maximum.

❑ 2. Perform the following substeps to measure the speeds of the driven
and driver shaft.
A. Ensure that the lockout/tagout is in place.
B. Remove the guard.
C. Place a 1/2-inch piece of reflective tape on the faces of both the
driver and driven gear.
D. Replace the guard once the tape is in place.
E. Measure the speeds of the motor shaft and the driven shaft
using the tachometer. Record your readings.
Driver Shaft Speed ______________________________(RPM)
Driven Shaft Speed _____________________________(RPM)

The unloaded speed of the motor shaft should be 100 - 300
RPM. Since the gear ratio is 2.5 (Gears 4 and 5), the speed of
the driven shaft speed should be equal to the input speed
divided by 2.5.
❑ 3. Reduce the speed to minimum and turn off the electric motor.
❑ 5. Perform the following substeps to disassemble the gears.
e This NOTE
tic
No
Do not change the positions of the shafts. In the next step,

you are going to reverse the gear positions so that the driven
gear is the pinion. This is a speed increaser drive.
A. Remove the guard.

B. Use a hex key wrench to loosen the set screw on the hub of
each gear.
C. Carefully pull the gears off their shafts.
If needed, use a punch to knock out the key first.

❑ 6. Reassemble the drive with the gears reversed, so that the large gear
is on the drive motor shaft and the small gear is on the driven
shaft, as shown in figure 51.
This configuration causes the speed at the driven shaft to be
increased and its torque to be decreased.
DRIVER (GEAR)
DRIVEN (PINION)
Figure 51. Gear Configuration for Speed Increaser Drive
❑ 7. Recheck the backlash and the alignment. Readjust if necessary.

❑ 8. Reinstall the guard.
WARNING
ning Do not operate the mechanical drive system without the guard
ar
W
in place. Also, do not attempt to open or bypass the guard at any

time during operation. Performing any of these actions will create
a hazardous situation.
❑ 9. Remove the lockout/tagout.

❑ 10. Turn on the motor and increase its speed to maximum.
❑ 11. Measure the speeds of the motor shaft and the driven shaft using
the tachometer. Record your readings.
Driver Shaft Speed ________________________________( RPM)

Since the gear ratio is now 0.4, the speed of the driven shaft speed
should be about 2.5 times the input speed.
❑ 12. Reduce the speed to minimum and turn off the motor.
❑ 14. Remove the guard.

❑ 15. Adjust the position of Shaft 2 so that the gears no longer mesh.
❑ 16. Remove the two gears and store them.
❑ 17. Mount Gear 7 to the driven shaft and Gear 6 to the driver shaft.
Now your gear ratio is 1.25:1. This set of gears use a 14.5 degree
pressure angle instead of a 20 degree pressure angle.
❑ 18. Mesh the gears so that they turn smoothly with a minimum of
backlash.
❑ 19. Align the gears using a straight edge.
❑ 20. Tighten the mounting bolts and recheck the alignment and
backlash.
❑ 21. Realign the flexible coupling using the straight edge and feeler
gage method if needed.
❑ 22. Spray teflon lubricant on the gears.
❑ 23. Install the guard.
❑ 24. Remove the lockout/tagout.
❑ 25. Turn on the motor and increase its speed to maximum.
❑ 26. Measure the speeds of the motor shaft and the driven shaft using
the tachometer. Record your readings.
Driver Shaft Speed ________________________________( RPM)

Since the gear ratio is now 1.25:1, the speed of the driven shaft
speed should be about 0.8 times the input speed.
❑ 27. Reduce the speed to minimum and turn off the motor.
❑ 28. Repeat Steps 18-27 using Gear 2 for driver gear and Gear 3 for the
driven gear.
This set of gears uses a different diametral pitch than you have
used before.
❑ 29. Disassemble the setup and store the components.

SEGMENT 5
SELF REVIEW
r This
we
Ans
1. Backlash can be measured by using a(n) _________
______________.
2. When measuring backlash, one gear must be held in a fixed

position while the other is ___________________ back and
forth.
3. Occasionally, the amount of backlash will have to be

adjusted because it increases as gears become ___________.
4. The two methods of measuring backlash are known as

____________ and ______________ measurement.
5. In one method of measuring backlash, a bar is attached to the

driven shaft and a dial indicator measures its movement.
This method must be adjusted to account for the
_____________ of the bar.
6. The ________ ___________ of a gear is the diameter of the

pitch circle.


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MECHANICAL

SPUR GEAR DRIVES

SPUR GEAR DRIVES

950-ME1 Mechanical Drives 1 Learning System

Amatrol or School Supplied

FIRST EDITION, LAP 6, REV. B

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

SEGMENT 2 GEAR DRIVE DESIGNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

SEGMENT 3 SPUR GEAR OPERATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

SEGMENT 4 SPUR GEAR INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

SEGMENT 5 SPUR GEAR ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

OBJECTIVE 1 DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE THREE COMPONENTS

Figure 1. Basic Components of a Gear Drive

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

Figure 2. Gear Drive Housing

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

Figure 3. Gear Pitch

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

Figure 4. Pitch Circle and Diameter of a Gear

The pitch diameter is important because it can be used to calculate

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

Ratio of Pitch Diameters

FORMULA: GEAR RATIO

As an example of how to calculate the gear ratio, look at the gear

Figure 5. Calculation of Gear Ratio

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

Ratio of Number of Gear Teeth

FORMULA: GEAR RATIO

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

SURFACE SPEED AT OUPUT SPEED

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

Figure 7. Effect of Gear Ratio on Torque of Driven Shaft

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

PITCH DIA = 4 in.

PITCH DIA = 2.5 in.

Figure 8. Gear Drive Application

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

Gear Ratio: ____________________________________________

Gear Ratio: ____________________________________________

Gear Ratio: ____________________________________________

Gear Ratio: ____________________________________________

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

2. Idler gears _______________ the direction of rotation or

4. The ______________ ratio is determined by dividing the

5. The same ratio can also be determined by using the ratio of

6. The circle along which speed and torque are directly

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

OBJECTIVE 4 DESCRIBE HOW TO CALCULATE THE SHAFT SPEED

as described in the previous objective can be expressed in the following

FORMULA: GEAR DRIVE SPEED

FORMULA: GEAR DRIVE SPEED

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

FORMULA: GEAR DRIVE TORQUE

As with the speed formula, the torque formula can be modified to

FORMULA: GEAR DRIVE TORQUE

B502-XC LAP 6 SPUR GEAR DRIVES

1800 RPM PITCH DIA = 12.0 in

Figure 9. Gear Drive System