2010 J1 / H1 Physics (8866) Forces

Forces
Content:

1. Types of forces
2. Equilibrium of forces
3. Centre of gravity
4. Turning effects of forces

(a) recall and apply Hooke’s law to new situations or to solve related problems

(b) deduce the elastic potential energy in a deformed material from the area under the force-
extension graph

(c) describe the forces on mass, charge and current in gravitational, electric and magnetic
fields, as appropriate.

(d) solve problems using the equation p = ρgh

(e) show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and viscous forces including air
resistance (No treatment of the coefficients of friction and viscosity is required)

(f) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium

(g) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a single point
known as its centre of gravity

(h) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to produce rotation
only

(i) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple

(j) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a
system is in equilibrium

(k) apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems

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(a) recall and apply Hooke’s law to new situations or to solve related problems

Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s Law states that the force required to extend (or compress) an elongated object is
directly proportional to the extension (or compression), provided the limit of proportionality
is not exceeded.

Mathematically, F∝x

Therefore,

F = kx

where:
• F is the force required to extend (or compress) the wire or spring, (unit: N)
• k is a positive constant known as the force constant or spring constant, (unit: N m-1)
• x is extension (or compression) of the wire or spring due to F, (unit: m)

Note:
Extension refers to an increase in length and compression refers to a decrease in length.
(These do not include the original length)

Sketch of the graph of F against x.

(where k is the gradient of the line)
F/N
F = kx

x/m

Figure 1

(b) deduce the elastic potential energy in a deformed material from the area
under the force-extension graph

Elastic potential energy, also known as the strain energy, is the energy stored in a body due to
its elastic deformation. (i.e. extension or compression) It can be deduced from the area under
the F - x graph as seen in the following page (Figure 3):

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E.g. Consider a spring which can be stretched horizontally by a force F as shown in Figure 2(b)
from its equilibrium position as seen in Figure 2(a).

∆x

x=0 x=0 x=x

Figure 2(a): Unstretched spring Figure 2(b): Stretched spring

The work done by F, ΔW, in stretching the spring by Δx is

ΔW = F Δx = ( kx) Δx

In general, the work done by F, W, in stretching the spring from extension x = 0 to x = x is

x x
W = ∫o
F dx = ∫ (kx) dx
o

Mathematically,
1 2
W = kx
2

Graphically,

Area under the F – x graph

F/N
F = kx
1
= ( height )(base )
2
F
1 1 1
= (F )( x ) = (kx )( x ) = kx 2
2 2 2

Note: This formula is ONLY true for

systems that obey Hooke’s law.

x For systems that do not obey

x/m
Hooke’s law, work done = area under
Figure 3 F-x graph (which will not be a linear
graph).

The work done in stretching the spring is stored as elastic potential energy or strain
energy in the spring and is represented as the area under the F – x graph

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Worked Example 1 [8866/01/N07/12]

The extension x of a particular spring is related to the stretching force as shown in the graph.

Solution:
1 2
Using formula EP = kx
2
1 2
Æ E= ke
2

When extension is 2e,

1 ⎛1 ⎞
E2 = k ( 2e ) = 4 ⎜ k e 2 ⎟
2

2 ⎝2 ⎠
When the extension of the spring is e, the elastic = 4E
potential energy stored in the spring is E.
What is the increase in the elastic potential energy The increase in elastic potential
when the extension is increased from e to 2e? energy = E2 – E
A E B 2E C 3E D 4E = 3E (C)

Worked Example 2 [J99/I/23]

A sample is placed in a tensile testing machine. It is extended by known amounts and the
tension is measured.
What is the work done on the sample when it is
given a total extension of 9 mm?
A) 0.31 J Solution:
B) 0.36 J W = Area under graph
1
C) 0.43 J = (60)(5x10 −3 )
2
D) 0.72 J 1
+ (60 + 80)(9 − 5)x10 −3
2
= 0.15 + 0.28 = 0.43 J

ANS: (C)
Worked Example 3 [J94/I/22]

The graph shows the relationship between

load F and extension x for a certain spring.
A load of 6.0 N is placed on the spring. What
additional strain energy will be stored in the
spring if it is then extended a further 0.01 m?

A) 0.010 J
B) 0.060 J
C) 0.070 J
D) 0.160 J

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Solution:
At F = 6.0 N, x = 0.03 m.
After extending to 0.04 m, F = 8.0 N

1 1
Additional strain energy = (8.0)(0.04) − (6.0)(0.03) = 0.070 J ANS : (C)
2 2

(c) describe the forces on mass, charge and current in gravitational, electric and
magnetic fields, as appropriate.
In Physics, a field refers to a region of space within which a force is experienced.

There are several different types of forces that act on different types of “objects”.
For all these types of forces, Newton’s laws of motion still apply (with some exceptions due to
quantum and relativistic effects, which are not in syllabus).
A gravitational field due to a mass is a region of space within which a gravitational force is
experienced by another mass. An electric field due a charge is a region of space within which
an electric force is experienced by another charge. A magnetic field is a region of space within
which a magnetic force is experienced by a moving charge.

Type of forces Nature of forces Description

• Attractive force that acts between any two masses.
• Direction of force always in the direction of the
Gravitational external gravitation field strength
Acts on masses
Force, Fg Fg -Fg
m1 m2

• Attractive or repulsive force that acts between any

two electric charges.
• For positive charges, direction of force is always in
the direction of an external electric field
Electric Acts on electric • For negative charges, direction of force is always
Force, FE charges opposite to the direction of an external electric field
FE -FE
FE -FE
FE -FE

Acts on current • If the conductor is placed parallel to the magnetic

carrying field, no force is experienced.
Magnetic
conductors, • The direction of magnetic force is perpendicular to
Force, FM moving charges the magnetic field and is given by Fleming’s Left
or magnets Hand Rule.
Electric and magnetic forces will be discussed in greater details in the topics “Electric Fields” and
“Electromagnetism” respectively.

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(d) solve problems using the equation p = ρgh

A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and held together by weak
cohesive forces and by forces exerted by the walls of a container i.e. it is a substance which can
flow. Both liquids and gases are fluids.

Fluid pressure increases with depth. Water pressure increases with depth. Likewise,
atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude (height).

Consider a cylinder of fluid with height h as shown in Figure 4,

The fluid pressure p (at the base of container) is given by

p = ρgh
Liquid of
density ρ h
where:

• p is the pressure due to the fluid (liquid or gas) at

depth h, (unit: Pa)
·
pressure p at
base of container
• ρ is the density of the fluid, (unit: kg m-3)
• g is the acceleration of free fall, (unit: m s-2)
Figure 4
• h is the depth of the fluid, (unit: m)

Note:
1. Pressure is a scalar quantity.
2. The fluid density ρ is assumed to be constant (i.e. the fluid is incompressible)
3. The fluid pressure p is equal (acting in all directions) at all points having the same depth,
independent of the shape of the container.
4. The equation p = ρgh allows the pressure due to the fluid to be calculated. It should be
remembered that the actual pressure at depth h in a liquid would be given by

pressure at depth h = ρgh + atmospheric pressure at liquid surface

(pressure due to fluid only)

Worked Example 4 [N91/1/21]

A long narrow tube is filled with water of density 1020 kg m-3 to a depth of 1.00 m. The tube is
then inclined at 30o to the horizontal as shown. (Take g = 9.81 m s-2)

If the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, what is the

pressure at point X, inside the tube?

A) 5.00 kPa
B) 10.0 kPa
C) 95.0 kPa
D) 105 kPa

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Solution:
Vertical height of water above X = 1.00 sin 30 o
Pressure at X
= ρgh + Patm = 1020 (9.81)(1.00 sin 30 o) + 100k
= 105 kPa Ans: (D)

Worked Example 5 [J93/1/23]

A tall container which is open to the atmosphere contains a layer of liquid L, floating on liquid M.
Liquid M has a density which is twice as great as that of liquid L.

Which graph shows how the pressure, p, at a point varies with

its height, x, above the base of the container?

Solution:
p = ρgx, as x increases, the pressure due to fluid, p decreases. Gradient depends on product
of ρg
Since ρM > ρL, the gradient of the line is becomes gentler. Ans: (C)

(e) show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and viscous forces

including air resistance (No treatment of the coefficients of friction and
viscosity is required)

Frictional Forces

Friction is a force that opposes relative motion. It acts along the common surface in contact
between the two bodies.

Frictional force arises in part from

(1) one peak physically blocking the motion of a peak from the opposing surface, even for
surfaces which are apparently very smooth, as shown in the magnified view in Figure 8;
(2) chemical bonding of opposing points as they come into contact.

Two surfaces in contact Magnified View

Figure 8

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Frictional forces are dissipative in nature as energy (which can otherwise be used to do useful
work) is required to overcome them. This work done in overcoming friction is “wasted” in the
form of thermal energy (heat) produced, which causes a rise in temperature. That is why your
hands feel warm when rubbed together.

Note:

With all other factors kept constant,

1. a larger normal contact force will result in a larger frictional force (only for static friction).
2. the frictional force between any 2 surfaces in contact also depends on the nature of the
surface (e.g. roughness of surface).
3. the frictional force between any 2 surfaces in contact is independent of their contact
area.

Viscous force (Friction in fluids)

It is the frictional force acting on a body when the body moves through a fluid i.e. a liquid or gas
and dissipative in nature. Examples of viscous force is air resistance acting on a moving car and
object falling in air.

Viscous force arises in fluids because there are attractive forces between fluid molecules.

Viscous force increases proportionally with speed in laminar flow conditions (when each particle
of the fluid follows a smooth path and the paths of each particle do not cross each other).

Above a critical speed, the fluid flow becomes irregular and turbulent and viscous force
increases proportionally with the square of speed.

Comparison between Frictional Forces and Viscous Forces

Frictional Forces Viscous Forces

Dissipative in nature Dissipative in nature

Occur due to the attractive forces Occur due to the attractive forces
Similarities
between molecules. between molecules.

Oppose motion Oppose motion

Act along the surfaces in contact Act between a fluid and a solid/fluid.
between two solid objects.

Not affected by relative speed Increase with the relative speed

Differences
between the two surfaces. between the two surfaces.

Friction exists even when the object is Does not exist when there is no
at rest. relative motion.

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(g) show an understanding that the weight of a body may be taken as acting at a
single point known as its centre of gravity

Centre of Gravity

The centre of gravity of an object is the point through which the weight of the object is taken
to act.

The weights w of n individual particles of an object are effectively parallel to each other as seen
in Figure in 9(a).

··············
w1 w2 w3 w4 … … wn-1 wn

Figure 9(a)

The weight W of an object is the resultant force of all the individual weights w of its particles in
the object and is directed towards the centre of the Earth. The centre of gravity, G of a rigid body
(Figure 9b) is the single point through which the weight of the object appears to act.

· centre of gravity, G
n
Weight, W = ∑ wi
i=1

Figure 9(b)

The factors affecting position of centre of gravity are (1) distribution of the masses; and (2) the
acceleration of free fall g.

Hence, if the distribution of masses and g remain constant on all parts of the objects, the centre
of gravity will coincide with the centre of mass of the object.

(i) define and apply the moment of a force and the torque of a couple

(h) show an understanding that a couple is a pair of forces which tends to

produce rotation only

The moment of a force about a pivot is the product of that force and the perpendicular
distance between the line of action of the force and the pivot.

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Couple
A couple is a pair of equal but opposite forces which do not act along the same line.

It tends to produce rotation only. There is no linear change in motion due to net/resultant
force being zero. The pair of forces is non-concurrent. (i.e. their lines of actions do not pass
through the a single common point)

The torque of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between their lines of action.

Line of
Consider a door as shown in Figure 10 (plan view), action of F

Taking moments about the hinge (pivot), d

(Clockwise) Moment due to F, τ = Fd
Hinge
• Units of F = N, Units of d = m,
• Units of τ = N m. F
Figure 10

Consider a cork-screw (wine-opener) as shown in Figure 11

(plan view),
F1
F1 and F2 form a couple and the torque of the couple τ is given
as product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
d
between the two forces i.e.

τ = F1d = F2d

F2
Where:
• τ is torque of a couple, in N m Figure 11
• F1, F2 are a pair of equal & opposite forces, in N
• d is the perpendicular distance between the pair of
equal and opposite forces, in m

Worked Example 10
Calculate the moment due to the 50 N force about the hinge. State whether the moment
calculated is clockwise or anti-clockwise.
Solution:
1.5 m
Resolving the 50 N force and taking moment about the
hinge,

hinge 30° Moment due to 50 N force = 50 sin 30° x 1.5

= 37.5 N m (clockwise)
50 N
Note:
The moment due to the 50 cos 30° N component is 0 N m
since the perpendicular distance from the line of action of
this component to the hinge is 0 m.

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Worked Example 11 [N99/1/5]

A ruler of length 0.30 m is pivoted at its centre. Equal and opposite forces of magnitude 2.0 N
are applied to the ends of the ruler, creating a couple as shown.

What is the magnitude of the torque of the couple on the ruler when
it is in the position shown?
A) 0.23 N m
Solution:
B) 0.39 N m
Force component of 2.0 N perpendicular to ruler
C) 0.46 N m
= 2.0 sin 50o
D) 0.60 N m
Magnitude of couple
= 0.30 (2.0 sin 50o)
= 0.46 m Ans: (C)

(j) show an understanding that, when there is no resultant force and no

resultant torque, a system is in equilibrium

(k) Apply the principle of moments to new situations or to solve related problems

The term “equilibrium” implies either the object is at rest or that its centre of mass moves with
constant velocity. For this course, we deal mainly with the former case, in which the object is
described as being in static equilibrium.

Two conditions must be satisfied for static equilibrium to take place for a rigid body.

(1) The resultant force acting on the object is zero.

(2) The resultant torque acting on the object is zero.

a) Resultant force = zero Æ Translational equilibrium

The vector sum of all external forces acting on a rigid body must be zero i.e. no
net/resultant force
ΣF=0

b) Resultant torque = zero Æ Rotational equilibrium

The vector sum of all external torques acting on a rigid body must be zero i.e. No
net/resultant torque, OR

Mathematically,
Στ=0

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Principle of Moments

For any body in rotational equilibrium, the total clockwise moments taken about any point (or
axis) is equal to the total anti-clockwise moments taken about the same point (or axis).

Mathematically,
Taking moments about any point (or axis),
Σ clockwise moments = Σ anti-clockwise moments
Note:
All anti-clockwise moments can be taken to be positive and clockwise moments to be negative
or vice versa.

To determine if a rigid body is in static equilibrium,

1) Draw free body diagram of rigid body (refer to page 8 of Tutorial)
2) If external forces are concurrent (lines of action pass through a single common point),
then the body has rotational equilibrium.

- Only need to check for translational equilibrium i.e. Σ F = 0

3) If external forces are non-concurrent,

- Check for translational equilibrium i.e. Σ F = 0

- Check for rotational equilibrium i.e. Σ τ = 0

To determine if point mass (object with no volume) is in static equilibrium,

1) Draw free body diagram of point mass
2) Check for translational equilibrium i.e. Σ F = 0

(f) use a vector triangle to represent forces in equilibrium

1) Two forces in equilibrium

Consider two forces acting on a crate is in Conclusion:

equilibrium,
They must act along the same line of action
(collinear), be equal in magnitude and opposite in
F1 direction.
F2
· · Σ Fx = 0 ; F 1 – F2 = 0
F1 = F2 (no resultant force)

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2) Three forces in equilibrium

Consider three forces acting on a crate is Conclusion:

in equilibrium, 1) They must act on the same plane (coplanar)
2) They form a closed triangle. (translational
F3 equilibrium)
3) They must all act through the same point
· F1
(concurrent), i.e. rotational equilibrium

· F2

F2 · F3

F1

3) Four or more forces in equilibrium

Consider four or more forces acting on a Conclusion:

crate is in equilibrium, 1) They must act on the same plane (coplanar)
2) They form a closed polygon. (translational
F3 equilibrium)
3) They must all act through the same point.
(rotational equilibrium)

F4
· F1
F1

· · F3

F2 · F2

F4

Worked Example 12 [J85/1/2]

In the diagram below, a body S of weight W hangs vertically
by a thread tied at Q to the string PQR.
If the system is in equilibrium, what is the tension in the
section PQ?
A) W cos 60o cos 30o Solution:
B) W cos 60o
C) W tan 30o
∑F y = 0 : FQR sin 30° = W
W
D) W cos 30o FQR =
sin 30°
E) W tan 60o
∑ Fx = 0 : FQR cos 30° = FQP
W
FQP = cos 30° = W tan60°
sin 30°
Ans: (E)

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Worked Example 13 [J87/1/3]

The diagram below shows a heavy flagpole PQ hinged at a vertical wall at end P and held by a
wire connected between end Q and a point R on the wall. The weight of the flagpole is W and
the tension in the wire is T.
What is the direction of the force exerted by the wall on the
flagpole?
JJJG
A) PQ
JJJG
B) PS Solution:
JJJG If the forces acting on the flagpole are
C) PX
JJJG concurrent, it is in equilibrium. Thus the force
D) QP exerted by the wall on the flagpole should be
JJG
E) SP along the line PS

The direction of the force must be from P to S in

order to balance the horizontal component of T.

Ans: (B)

Worked Example 14
The force diagrams show all the forces acting on a beam of length 3x.
What force system causes only rotational motion of the beam without any linear movement?
[N98/1/5]

Solution:
For no linear movement of the beam, ∑F = 0 i.e. ∑Fy = 0 since the forces are only along
the vertical axis.

To have only rotational motion, Σ τ ≠ 0

Ans: (D)

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Worked Example 15
A uniform rod of length 7.00 m and mass 5.0 kg is pivoted as shown. Draw a free-body diagram
for the rod and determine (a) the mass m which must be attached to maintain static equilibrium
with the rod horizontal; and (b) the reaction force, R experienced at the pivot.
(Take g = 9.81 m s-2)

2m 5m
2m 5m

m
mg R 5g

Free Body Diagram of the Rod

Solution:

(a) Taking moments about pivot (so that R need not be considered in our analysis), and
applying Principle of Moments,
Σ clockwise moments = Σ anti-clockwise moments
(5g)(3.5 m - 2 m) = (mg)(2 m)
m = 3.75 kg

(b) For static equilibrium to occur,

Σ Fy = 0
R – 3.75g – 5g = 0 (Taking upwards as positive)
R = 8.75g
R = (8.75)(9.81) = 85.8 N

Worked Example 16
A ladder of weight W rests against a vertical wall.
Friction between the ladder and the ground and also between the ladder and the wall prevents
the ladder from slipping.
Which diagram shows the directions of the forces on the ladder?

Solution:
As the ladder is in equilibrium, all forces must be concurrent (i.e. pass through a single
point). (Ans B is eliminated).
As there is friction with wall & ground, the contact forces must have a resultant that cannot
be perpendicular to the surfaces.
Hence, ANS : (C)

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Worked Example 17
A uniform rod has a wooden section and a solid rubber handle as shown.

The length of the handle is l and the length of the wooden section is 4.00 l. The rod balances a
distance 2.10 l from the rubber end.
density of rubber
What is the ratio ?
density of wood

Solution:
Force by pivot on rod
1) Draw the free body diagram.
2) Take moments about pivot :
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment 0.9 l 1.6 l
Wwood (0.9l) = Wrubber (1.6l)
mwood g (0.9l) = mrubber g (1.6l)
ρwood.Vwood g (0.9l) = ρrubber. Vrubber. g (1.6l)
ρwood. A (4.00 l) g (0.9l) = ρrubber. A (l) g (1.6l)
Wwood Wrubber
ρrubber A(4.00l )g(0.9l )
= = 2.25
ρwood A(l )g(1.6l )

Worked Example 18
(a) State the conditions for a rigid body to be in equilibrium.
(b) A hungry bear weighing 700 N walks out on a beam in an attempt to retrieve some goodies
hanging at the end of the beam. The uniform beam weighs 200 N and is 6 m long, the
goodies weighs 80 N
(i) Draw a free body diagram for the beam.
(ii) When the bear is at x = 1 m, find the tension in the wire and the horizontal and
vertical components of the force at the hinge.
(iii) If the wire can withstand a maximum tension of 900 N, what is the maximum distance
the bear can walk before the wire breaks?

x wire

600

hinge
goodies

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Solution:

(a) 1. The resultant force acting on a rigid body must be zero.

2. The resultant torque acting on a rigid body must be zero.

(b) (i)
Tension, T
Force on beam at hinge, R

80 N

700 N
200 N
(ii) Taking moment about hinge,
Total anticlockwise moment = total clockwise moment
T sin 600 x 6 = 700 x 1 + 200 x 3 + 80 x 6
T = 343 N

∑ Fx = 0 ⇒ Rx = T cos 600
= 343 x cos 600
= 172 N
∑ Fy = 0 ⇒ Ry + T sin 600 = 700 + 200 + 80
Ry + 343 sin 600 = 980
Ry = 683 N

(iii) Taking moment about hinge,

Total anticlockwise moment = total clockwise moment
900 sin 600 x 6 = (700)(x) + 200 x 3 + 80 x 6
x = 5.14 m
Hence, the wire will break when the bear exceeds x = 5.14 m

---The End---

Reference Textbooks:
1) Serway/Faughn, College Physics 6th Ed.(Int. Student Ed), Thomson Learning 2003
2) Loo Kwok Wai, Longman Advanced Level Physics, Pearson Ed. 2006
3) Robert Hutchings, Physics 2nd Ed., Nelson 2000
4) Paul G. Hewitt, Conceptual Physics 9th Ed., Addison Wesley 2002

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