Atomic mass
● Carbon 12 is the basis
● Carbon 12 - has exactly 12 units of
mass
● One amu = 1/12 of the mass of a
C-12 isotope
● ^^1.660539 x 10 ^-24 grams
● Mass of C-12 - 12.00 amu
Relative atomic mass
● Obtained by dividing the mass of
an atom with the atomic mass unit
Average atomic mass
● Representative atomic mass - for
elements that may exist in diff
isotopic forms
● Value indicated in the periodic
table
● Weighted avg of the atomic
masses of known stable isotopes
based on percent isotopic
abundances
Avogrado’s number
● Constant used to quantify the no of
particles of an element or
compound
● Named in honor of amedeo
avogadro
● 6.022 x 10^23
➢ Molecule - particle unit of covalent
compounds
➢ Formula unit - ionic compounds
Mole
● Refers to quantity of particles in a
substance
● ^^ equal to avogrado’s no
Percent composition and chemical
formulas
%A =
(atomic mass of A) x (number of atoms of A∈the compound)
formula/molecular mass of the compound
Chemical formula from percent
composition
● Derived fr given percent
composition of its constituent
elements
● Applies during chem analysis -
compound is broken down to
elements to determine its percent
composition
Chemical reactions
● New substances are always
produced
● ^^represnted by a chem equation
Chem equation
● shows:
➢ Identity of the reactants
and products consumed n
➢ Relative amt of these
substances consumed /
produced
● Reactants - left
● Products - right
Stochiometric coefficients
● Numbers before the chem
formula / elements symbol
● Indicate the mole ratio among the
reactants and products of a
reaction
● No coefficient = 1
● Physical state of substance:
➢ (s) - solid
➢ (l) - liquid
➢ (g) - gas
➢ (aq) - aqueous substance
● Not the same as the number
subscripts found after an element
symbol within a chem formula
● Subscripts only indicate how much
fo an atom is present in every one
 molecule / formula unit of a
compound
Evidences of chemical reactions
● Chem reactions are always
accompanied by chem changes
such as:
➢ Change in color
➢ Evolution of gas (formation
of bubbles)
➢ evolution / absorption of
heat (warming,cooling,
formation of sparks / flame)
➢ Formation of precipitate
(insoluble solid)
➢ Change in odor
Basic types of chemical reactions
Synthesis / combination reactions
● A + B -> C
● Two or more reactants combine to
form a single product
● Can be:
➢ Metal + nonmetal = ionic
compound
➢ Nonmetal + nonmetal =
covalent compound
➢ Compound + compound =
compound
Decomposition / analysis
● C -> A + B
● Reverse of synthesis
● Involves a reactant dissociating
into 2 or more products
● Products may be constituent
elements of the reactant / simpler
compounds derived from the
reactant
● Complex -> simple
● e.g.:
➢ Ionic compound ->
nonmetal and metal
SINGLE REPLACEMENT /
SUBSTITUTION
● AB + X -> AX + B (X and B may be
is a metal)
● One element is replaced by a diff
element
● A more active free metal replaces
a less active one in a compound
● Relative reactivities of several
metals are organized in an activity
series
● H2 is the only nonmetal that can
replace other metals
● For halogens : F>Cl>Br>I
● F most reactive wd I as least
reactive
DOUBLE REPLACEMENT /
METATHESIS
● AX + BY -> AY + BX
● 2 ionic compounds exchange
cations and anions with each other
REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
● The solvent is water
NEUTRALIZATION
● Involves an acid and base
● Follows a double replacement type
● Products are salt and water
● Cation of salt comes from the base
and anion comes from the acid
● Has a hydrogen atom
● acid + base → water + salt.
● HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) → H 2O(ℓ) +
KCl(aq)
● 2HCl(aq) + Mg(OH) 2(aq) → 2H
2O(ℓ) + MgCl 2(aq)
● 3HCl(aq) + Fe(OH) 3(s) → 3H 2O(ℓ)
+ FeCl 3(aq)
● HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H 2O(ℓ) +
NaCl(aq)
 ● H +(aq) + Cl −(aq) + Na +(aq) + OH −
(aq) → H 2O(ℓ) + Na +(aq) + Cl −(aq)
PRECIPITATION
● Precipitate (insoluble solid) is
formed
● Double replacement reaction
● Involves 2 ionic compounds as
reactants
● Forms a water - soluble salt
● Formation of precipitates can be
predicted using the solubility rules
for ionic compounds:
➢ All compounds of Group 1
A and the ammonium ion
are soluble
➢ All nitrates and chlorates
are soluble
➢ All chlorides, brmides, and
iodides are soluble except
those of silver, mercury,
and lead
➢ All sulfates are soluble
except those of barium,
calcium, and strontium
➢ All carbonates,
phosphates, sulfides, and
hydroxides except those of
group 1 A and ammonium
OXIDATION - REDUCTION (Redox)
reaction
● Oxidation number - atom in a
molecule / ion indicates the no of
electrons that have been
removed / added to get to its new
state
● oxidation:
➢ Process in which an atom
loses an electron
➢ Result in increase of
oxidation number of that
atom
● reduction
➢ Process where an atom
gains an electron
➢ Result to decrease in
oxidation number
● Always come together
● Always involve the transfer of
electrons and changes in oxidation
numbers
● When a substance is oxidized,
another substance must have
been reduced and vice versa
● Reducing agent
➢ Substance that is
OXIDIZED
➢ Causes the reduction of the
other substance
● Oxidizing agent
➢ Substance that is
REDUCED
➢ Causes the oxidation fo the
other substance
● Most synthesis and decomposition
reactions are redox reactions
General rules on assigning oxidation
numbers:
➢ If element is in their free state, 0
➢ ON of monoatomic ion is SAME as
their charge
➢ In binary compounds, Halogens
have -1 if bound to a LESS
electronegative element
➢ When in compound - H is +1, when
combined with a less
electronegative element - H is -1
➢ On of oxygen is usually -2, if
peroxide its -1, if fluorine, its +1
➢ For a neutral compound, the sum
of all ON must be equal to 0
 ➢ In polyatomic ions, te sum of ON of
all atoms is equal to the net charge
of the ion
BALANCING CHEM EQUATIONS
● Usually done thru inspection
● Ff rules are followed:
➢ Start with the most
complicated formula,
balance first the element
that appears only once in
either of the reactants /
products
➢ The next E to balance is
the one whose no was
affected by the coefficient
written on a formula when
the prev element was
balanced
➢ The one with the simplest
formula should be balanced
last, affixing any coefficient
to it will not affect the no of
elements of the other
formulas
➢ Coefficients must be in
whole no, if a fraction
comes up, multiply the
whole equation by the
denominator of this fraction
➢ Express the coefficients in
their lowest no if applicable
STOICHIOMETRY: MASS
RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
● A balanced chemical equation and
law of conservation of mass help
determine wither the amt of
product that can be formed fr a
given amt of reactant or the amt of
reactant required to produce a
certain quantity of a product
● Stoichiometry - quantitative rs in a
reaction
MASS RELATIONSHIPS
● Relating mass of substance a to
substance b
● steps:
1. Convert the mass of
substance A to no of moles
2. Calculate the mole of sub B
fr the mole of sub A using
the mole ratio derived from
the coefficients of the
involved subs in a balanced
equation
3. Convert the mole of sought
sub b to mass
THEORETICAL YIELD
LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENTS
● Limiting reagent:
➢ Consumed completely in
the reaction
➢ Substance that limits the
formation of the product
➢ Once this is used up, the
reaction no longer
proceeds and so does the
formation of products
● Excess reagent
➢ Will have some unreacted
amount after the reaction
● Theoretical yield is obtained based
on the amt of the limiting reagent