1st QUARTER

LT# 1

Plum Pudding Model

● Joseph John Thomson

● 1904
● compared to a cake / pastry
● A is small positive sphere / mass with negatively charged electrons embedded on it
● positive charges spread out as much as possible, negative charges are distributed
● thus, A has neutral charge

Nuclear Model

● Ernest Rutherford
● 1911
● compared to a cell, A has definite center, nucleus
● highly condensed positive matter
● A is mostly space, with a positively charged, centrally located nucleus, and the
electrons surround the nucleus which are located at the atomic psace
● protons and neutrons are inside the nucleus

Planetary Model

● Niels Bohr
● 1913
● compared to solar system
● nucleus is sun, and electrons "orbit" around the nucleus
● E follows orbits
● orbits - energy levels
● A is mostly space with small, dense, and positively charged nucleus, and negatively
charged electrons located at energy levels

Quantum Mechanical Model

● Erwin Schrodinger
● 1926
● a.k.a Electron Cloud model
● compared to cloud
● E does not follow definite path
● E moves very quickly at random directions
● creates cloud of negative charge
● the region where E are most likely found is the electron cloud
● cloud surrounds the nucleus

Protons

● +
● positive
● located inside the nucleus
Electrons

● -
● negative
● located outside the nucleus

Neutrons

● 0
● no charge
● located inside the nucleus

Mass Number

● A
● higher value
● sometimes in decimal form

Atomic Number

● Z
● lower value
● indicates the number of protons and electrons in an A

No. of subatomic particles

● AN (Z) - indicates protons and electrons

● MN (A) - AN (0) - indicates no. of neutrons

Valence Electrons

● "valentia" - "capacity" - Greek

● the outermost electrons
● indicates the kind of chemical bonds an A can form
● E are unstable by themselves
● E need to pair with other E to become stable
● not all E are compatible
● VE dictates the compatibility
● max no. of VE - 8

How to find no of valence electrons:

2 ways:

1. Electron Configuration
● electronic structure
● arrangement of electrons in energy levels around atomic nucleus
 2. Placement in Periodic Table
● locate element
● find family and period
○ period - 7 rows
○ family - 18 columns
● family indicates the number of valence electrons
● only applicable to families 1,2,13-18
● if there is the digit 1, just disregard it

EDS

● Lewis Electron - Dot Structure

● explained relationship between electron structure and chemical bonds
● only the outermost electrons participate in chemical bonding
● dictates tendency of A, whether its a giver, receiver, or sharer
● indicates VE
● kernel - symbol, represents nucleus and inner electrons
● dots - represent VE

How to write an EDS

● imagine a square
● put a dot on each side until all VE have been used
● max of 2 dots per side

Ions

● charged atoms
● formed when an A loses / gains E
● inequality of P & E causes the A to be charged
● the charge of the more abundant particle becomes the overall charge of A
● A are unstable by themselves, they need to change themselves to form
relationships / bonds with other A
● to form relationships an A must either gain / lose E

Types of ions

1. Cation
● +
● formed when an A loses E
● source of extra electrons
● giver

2. Anion
● -
● formed when A gains E
● receiver of the extra E
 ● receiver

Oxidation Number

● total no. of E gained / lost during a chemical bond formation

● positive / negative sign indicates whether E was lost / gained

How to find the Oxidation no. :

Metals

● +
● cations
● givers
● locate E in periodic table
● no. of VE = ON

non - metals

● -
● anions
● receivers
● locate E
● 8 - no. of VE = ON

Halogens

● noble gases
● stable by themselves
● neutral
● don't interact in bond formation
● has complete 8 VE

LT#2

Periodic Table

● impt since it is reference

● able to identify whether it is non metal / metal

Metals

● +
● cations
● givers
● VE - Family / group no.
● LEDS - refer to VE
● ON - +, family / group no.

Non Metals

● -
 ● anions
● receivers
● VE - family / group no.
● LEDS - refer to VE
● ON - -, 8 - VE

Ionic compounds

● metal and nonmetal

● It is the result of attraction between opposite charges
● give and take relationship
● Metals are the givers, in order to achieve stability, it must give up all its extra
electrons
● Nonmetals are the receivers, in order to reach stability, it must follow the octet rule
( that it must have 8 valence electrons)

Properties of an Ionic Compound

1. High melting and Boiling Points

● strong attraction
● it is hard to separate
● requires great amts of force
2. Polar
● partly positive, partly negative
3. Easily dissolves in water
● polar substance
● "like dissolves like"
4. Good conductors of heat and electricity
5. Appearance
● Crystalline / solid

Covalent Compounds

● nonmetal and nonmetal

● sharing relationship
● central atom is being satisfied

Properties of Covalent Compounds

1. Low Melting and Boiling Points

● weak attraction due to like charges
2. Nonpolar compound
● partly negative and partly negative
3. Does not easily dissolve in water
● nonpolar does not dissolve in water
● although water is actually a covalent compound
4. Poor conductors of heat and electricity
5. Appearance
● solid, liquid, gas

Chemical formula

● shows ratio of atoms

Cross charge method

● oxidation numbers of 2 charges are being swapped

Naming compounds

Ionic compounds

● metal / cation is written first

● nonmetal is written second with the format root word + - ide
● format stays the same regardless of subscript

Covalent compounds

● prefixes are being used

● "mono" isnt being used in the first nonmetal
● 1st name - prefix + fullname
● 2nd name - prefix + root word + - ide

Prefix list:

● 1 - mono
● 2 - di
● 3 - tri
● 4 - tetra
● 5 - penta
● 6 - hexa
● 7 - hepta
● 8 - octa
● 9 - nona
● 10 -deca

Ion names:

● carbon - carbide
● nitrogen - nitride
● phosphorus - phosphide
● oxygen - oxide
● sulfur - sulfide
● flourine - flouride
● chlorine - chloride
● bromine - bromide
● iodine - iodide
2ND Q

Carbon

● element of life
● no. of protons in an E defines its identity
● 6 protons
● 2 E in inner shell, 4 VE in outer shell
● made thru fusion of hydrogen A
● can form 4 bonds
● can either form single / double / triple bonds
● when bonded to 2 / 3 A, forms flat / linear structure
● when bonded to 4 A forms 3 D structure
● its special bc its atomic structure allows it to take various forms which results in
various compounds
● makes up a lot of things on earth

Other properties:

Location in Periodic table:

● period 2, group 14

Subatomic particles:

● Mass No - 12
● Atomic No - 6
● Protons - 6
● Electrons - 6
● Neutrons - 6
Properties:

● Nonmetal

Bond formation:

● covalent when paired wd nonmetal

● ionic when paired wd metal

Hydrocarbons

● hydrogen and carbon

● Hydrogen is fulfilled by the duet rule
● Carbon is fulfilled by the octet rule

Types of hydrocarbons

● Dictated by the type of bond formed between 2 Carbon Atoms

1. Alkane
● single bonds
● CnH2n + 2
● prefix + -ane
2. Alkene
● double bonds
● CnH2n
● lower no. where bond is, start counting from nearest end + prefix + -ene
3. Alkyne
● triple bonds
● CnH2n+2
● lower no. of location of bond + prefix + -yne

Organic Compounds

● contains a chain of C a covalently bonded to other A

Types of organic compounds

1. Natural
● fr plants and animals
● fr living systems
2. Synthetic
● fr laboratories

Hydrocarbon derivatives
 ● complex compounds
● derived from hydrocarbons
● a H atom is replaced by a specific / group of A, which dictates the characteristics of
the compound
● a functional group is attached

Functional group

● attatchment / accessory
● dictates the whole characteristic of the compound

Types of Functional Groups

1. Hydroxyl
● single bonded OH
2. Carbonyl
● double bonded O
3. Carboxyl
● single bonded OH and double bonded O

Types of hydrocarbon derivatives

1. Aldehyde
● CARBONYL group is attached to END / TIP OF STRUCTURE
● replace - e with -al
2. Ketone
● CARBONYL group WITHIN THE STRUCTURE
● location no. of where FG is + replace -e with -one
3. Alcohol
● HYDROXYL group can be found ANYWHERE in structure
● location no. + replace - e wd -ol
4. Carboxylic acid
● CARBOXYL group is found AT THE END / TIP
● replace - e wd -oic + acid

List of prefixes:

● eth
● prop
● but
● penta
● hex
● hept
● oct
● non
● dec
LT #2

Molar mass

Other terms:

1. Molar mass - general term

2. Formula mass - used for ionic compounds
3. Molecular mass - used for covalent compounds

● g/mol
● how heavy a mole is
● Determined with the use of mass number and no. of atoms
● Differs with each element/compund

Mole concept

● derived from the Latin words -"heap" / "huge pile"

● SI unit for atoms
● counting unit for atoms
● represents atoms
● mass differs for each E / C bc some elements have more protons, resulting to a
heavier mass
● number of particles stay CONSTANT for 1 mole
● 1 mole = 6.022 x 10 ^23 particles
● if its mol > g conversion flow is left to right
● if its g > mol conversion flow is right to left

Avogrado's Constant / particles

● Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogrado

● ^^ introduced the concept
● 1 mole = 12 g of C - 12 / 6.022 x 10 ^23
● stays constant
● mass DIFFERS but number of particles STAYS CONSTANT

Particles

Other terms:

1. Particles - general term

2. Formula unit - used for ionic compounds
3. Atoms - used for elements
4. Molecules - used for covalent compounds
 ● if mol > p conversion flow is left to right
● if p > mol conversion flow is right to left
● if g > mol > p conversion flow is left to right
● if p > mol > g conversion flow is right to left

Percentage composition

● percent
● composition is expressed by mass of individual elements in relation to total mass of
compound
● expresses mass of each component element per 100 mass units of compound
● indicates relative amt by mass of each element in compound
● to determine this you need:
➢ Mass number
➢ Subscript
➢ Total molar mass

3rd Q

LT#1
Plants

● autotrophs
● self feeders
● only organisms that can produce food
● can sustain without consuming other organisms
● get energy from the sun
● convert Light Energy to Chemical Energy

Sun

● main source of E
● fuels plants
● source of LE
● powers plants which in turn powers other organisms

Photosynthesis

● "photos" - "light" - Greek

● "synthesis" - " manufacture" / "to put together"
● process where sun fuels plant to produce glucose
● converts light energy to chemical energy
● occurs in the chloroplast

Chloroplasts

● green plastid
● photosynthesis occurs here
● outer membrane
● inner membrane
● granum
● thylakoid
● stroma

Stages of Photosynthesis

1. Light dependent Reactions

● occurs in thylakoid membrane
● dependent on sunlight converts light energy to chemical energy

Inputs:

1. Sun / light energy - breaks H20 into hydrogen and oxygen atoms
2. H20 - split into H and O, 2 H ions and 2 H electrons
 3. ADP - mixed wd phosphate to create ATP
4. NADP+ - picks up H atoms to form NADPH

Outputs:

1. O2
2. ATP and NADPH - provides necessary energy and electrons for next stage

2. Light independent reaction

● also known as Calvin Cycle

● ^^ named after Melvin Calvin
● occurs in stroma
● create glucose from stored chem e

Inputs:

1. CO2 - combined by RuBisCo wd RuBP to produce G3P

2. ATP and NADPH - provides the energy and electrons needed

Outputs:

1. 2 G3P
2. ADP and NADP - to be used in next LDS

- 6 cycles form 1 Glucose molecule

- 2 G3P = 1 C

Formula for Photosynthesis

● 6 CO2 + 6 H20 = 1 C6H12O6 + 6 O2

ATP

● energy that is being recognized by the body

● energy must be converted to this in order for e from food to be used

Cellular Respiration

● breaking down G into ATP

● releases e fr food molecules
● CD and W are also produced
● G powers this process

Types of Cellular Respiration

1. Aerobic
● uses oxygen
 ● used by most cells
2. Anaerobic
● does not use oxygen
● used by prokaryotes
● emergency of body

Mitochondria

● powerhouse of the cell

Parts of the mitochondria:

● matrix
● inner membrane
● outer membrane

STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

1. Glycolysis
● occurs in cytoplasm
● breaks down G into pyruvate

Inputs:

1. Glucose - 6 C molecule broken down into 3 C molecules, pyruvate

2. 2 ATP - fuels the process

Outputs:

1. 2 ATP
2. 2 pyruvate and 2 NADH

2. Krebs Cycle

● somewhere along the way to the matrix, pyruvate becomes 2 Acetyl-CoA

● occurs in matrix
● capture energy from series of processes

Inputs:

1. 2 Acetyl CoA - combined wd 4 C compound becomes 6 C compound, broken down

Outputs:

1. 2 ATP
2. 8 NADH and 2 FADH
3. 6 CO2
3. Electron Transport Chain

● oxidative phosphorylation
● occurs in inner membrane
● produces ATP

Inputs:

1. NADH and FADH2

2. O2 - final electron acceptor

Output:

1. 32 ATP
2. 6 H20

● Whole process produces 32 - 36 ATPs

Formula of Cellular Respiration

● 1 C6H12O6 + 6 O2 = 6 H20 + 6 CO2

LT #2

The Need to Respire

● all animals need O to survive

● the lack of O may lead to permanent brain damage or death
● O is also needed for energy production
● constant breathing and circulation is needed in order to provide O and take out CD

Respiration

● overall exchange of gases of the atmosphere, body, blood, and cells

● inhalation and exhalation

PHASES OF RESPIRATION

1. Breathing / Ventilation
● inspiration - take in air
● expiration - release air
2. External Respiration
● exchange of O and CD
● between air and body
 3. Internal Respiration
● exchange of O and CD
● between blood and cells
4. Cellular Respiration
● production of energy (ATP) thru O
● releases CD as waste product

Parts and Flow of the Respiratory system

Main organ:

Lungs

● main organ
● inhale - expands
● exhale - contracts
● sponge like
● bounded by the ribs
● diaphragm is located at the bottom of this

FLOW OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Nasal / Oral Cavities

● primary opening
● cilia / nose hairs filters air
● climatizes air to the temp of our body to ensure that organs do not
malfunction
● air passes thru here
2. Pharynx
● muscular upper tube
● leads to 2 passageways:
○ esophagus - digestive
○ trachea - respiratory
● leads air to larynx / trachea
3. Larynx
● located at the top of the trachea
● also contains the vocal cords
● known as the voice box
● leads air to the trachea
4. Trachea / Windpipe
● main passageway of air
● cartilage rings support and keep trachea open, keeps it from collapsing
 5. Bronchus
● branches out into left and right
● air passes thru hear to the right and left lungs

6. Bronchioles
● small twig sized passageways
● leads air into alveoli

7. Alveoli
● small clustered air sacs
● like grapes
● site of gas exchange
● walls are 1 cell thick which allows diffusion of O and CD
● inhalation - inflates
● exhalation - deflates

8. Diaphragm
● helps in breathing
● inhalation - contacts
● exhalation - expands

Circulatory system

● also known as the cardiovascular system

● transports oxygen and nutrients
● collects waste and CD
● keeps us alive

Heart

● main organ
● involuntary muscle
● size of a clenched fist
● 300 - 400 g
● made up of cardiac muscle
● pumps blood throughout the body, lungs first

PARTS OF THE HEART

Chambers

1. Upper Chambers:
➢ Right Atrium - gathers Deoxygenated Blood
 ➢ Left atrium - gathers Oxygenated Blood
2. Lower Chambers
➢ Right Ventricle - pumps Deoxygenated Blood
➢ Left Ventricle - pumps Oxygenated Blood

Valves

● prevents backflow
● ensures blood is in 1 direction

1. Tricuspid Valve
● between Right Atrium and Right Ventricle

2. Pulmonary Valve
● between Right Ventricle and Pulmonary Artery
3. Mitral / Bicuspid Valve
● between Left Atrium and Left Ventricle
4. Aortic Valve
● between Left Ventricle and Aorta

Arteries

1. Pulmonary Artery
● moves Deoxygenated Blood to lungs

2. Aorta
● biggest artery
● distributes Oxygenated Blood to body

Veins

● moves B towards body

1. Superior and Inferior Vena Cava
➢ Superior - carries Deoxygenated Blood from upper body
➢ Inferior - carries Deoxygenated Blood from lower body
2. Pulmonary Veins
● carries Oxygenated Blood from lungs
Septum

● separates Heart to left and right

● separates Oxygenated Blood from Deoxygenated Blood

Blood

● river of life
● made up of cells, fluids, and tissues
● transports oxygen and nutrients, collects CD and waste
● plasma - 55 %
● cells - 45 %

Parts of Blood

1. Red blood Cells

● transports oxygen
2. White Blood Cells
● defends body
3. Platelets
● responsible for blood clotting
4. Plasma
● fluid part of the blood
4th Q

LT #1

Traits

● distinguishing qualities
● observable characteristics of 1 person
● general category
● e.g.
○ hair color

Allele

● responsible for observed trait

● options / variations of trait
● represented by 1st letter of dominant allele
● dominant - uppercase
● recessive - lowercase

Heredity

● genetic heritage
● passing of characteristics from parents to offspring

Genes

● basic functional and physical unit of heredity

● made up of DNA ( genetic material)
● mitosis replication
● meiosis - recombination

Chromosome

● threadlike structure
● found in nucleus
● made of proteins
● organized package of DNA

Dominant Gene

● expressed more strongly

● masks recessive gene
● observed trait for a variety of reasons
 ● more seen in the population

Dominance

● relationship between 2 alleles and the associated phenotype

Recessive gene

● masked / hidden by dominant gene

● contrasts dominant gene
● not observed

Complete Dominance

● dominant allele completely masks recessive allele

● mendelian genetics follows this principle

Gregor Mendel

● July 18, 1822 - 1884

● Augustinian friar before he became a german meterologist, botanist, mathematician ,
biologist
● father of modern genetics
● laid foundation of heredity and genetics thru breeding pea plants

Mendel's Contributions

● bred pea plants / pisum savitum

● identified 7 repeating traits and each have 2 diff alleles
● established phenotype and gentoype

Phenotype

● observed physical trait

● phsical structure / phsical appearnace / morphology
● described thru adjectives
● each phenotype has a corresponding genotype

Types of phenotypes
 1. Homozygous Dominant
● 2 Dominant alleles

2. Heterozygous
● 1 Dominant and 1 Recessive
● still follows the dominant gene in the case of mendelian genetics

3. Homozygous Recessive
● 2 recessive Alleles
● this is the only time the recessive allele may be expressed in terms of
mendelian genetics

Homozygosity

● 2 same Alleles

Heterozygosity

● 2 diff Alleles

Genotype

● gene responsible for observed characteristics

● genetic info / genetic coding
● single gene / set of genes
● determines phenotype / observable characteristics
● expressed thru letters

Denoted by the following:

1. Homozygous Dominant - 2 capital letters

2. Heterozygous - 1 capital letter and 1 lowercase letter
3. Homozygous Recessive - 2 lowercase letters

Non Mendelian Genetics

 ● more complex inheritance pattern than what is observed in complete dominance, 1
trait and 2 alleles
● founded after mendelian genetics
● supports mendelian genetics

Incomplete Dominance

● partial dominance / semi dominance

● mixture of purebred characteristics
● intermediate gene / blended trait is the 3rd allele
● does not resemble either traits of parents
● blended trait is 3rd option, its the 3rd allele

Intermediate gene

● blended
● does not resemble pure trait

Genotypes:

1. Homozygous Dominant - 2 capital letters (letters are based on 1st letter of

dominant trait)
2. Heterozygous - 2 capital letters (1st letter is based on dominant trait while 2nd
letter is based on recessive trait)
3. Homozygous Recessive - 2 capital letters ( letters are based on 1st letter of
recessive trait )

Codominance

● both phenotypes of A are expresses equally

● alleles of male and female are neither dominant nor recessive
● both A appear
● co - together / equal
● both just appear
● given that the organism is heterozygous
● fully expressed as heterozygous
● both alleles are dominant

Genotypes:

1. Homozygous Dominant
➢ 2 capital letters that are based on the first letter of the trait
➢ superscript is based on the 1st letter of the dominant allele
2. Heterozygous
 ➢ 2 capital letters that are based on the first letter of the said trait
➢ 1 superscript is based on the dominant the other superscript is based on the
recessive one

3. Homozygous Recessive
➢ 2 capital letters that is based on the first letter of the trait
➢ superscript is based on he first letter of the recessive

Punnett Square

● Reginald Punnett
● predicts all possible combinations of 2 organisms
● diagram made of boxes
● considers all possible combination of gametes

LT #2

Biodiversity

● entire range of organsims

● plants, animals, bacteria, microorgansims
 ● contraction of biological diversity
● describes enormous diversity in earth

Extinction

● natural process
● the termination of a certain group of organisms, commonly species
● process of purging
● earth gets rid of organisms that are no longer relevant/ not needed/ not of use
● this makes way for new species, the new evolution of species
● it is the death f the last individual of a certain species
● the remaining individuals cant reproduce. leading to it not being able to recover
○ e.g. 2 male / 2 female
○ organisms are too old to reproduce
● current rate of extinction is the fastest its ever been
● 99% of life is already extinct

Types of extinction

1. Mass Extinction
● rate of E dramatically increases
● large groups of organisms go extinct within a short period of time
2. Locally Extinct
● certain species is extinct at place of origin
● only extinct in a certain place
● present in other places in the world
3. Biologically Extinct
● totally extinct
● no species can be found anywhere in the world
4. Ecologically extinct
● only a few individuals are left
● interaction with other species is irrelevant dure to its low abundance
● when it dies, the whole species die out

Speciation

● slow evolutionary process

● certain species evolve ionto a distinct species
● there is a change in physical attributes, behavioral patterns
● evolve as it adapts into new niches

● rate of extinction must be equal to rate of speciation to maintain balance

● rate of purging = rate of evolution
● currently extinction rate is faster resulting to the loss of biodiversity
● rate of e is 100 - 1000 times faster than it once was
HIPPCO

Habitat destruction degradation and fragmentation

● habitats are broken down to small isolated fragments

Invasive species

● also known as alien / non native / exotic

● can be deliberately / accidentally introduced
● since there is no competition, predators, parasites or pathogens that can reduce it
numbers, it affects the whole ecosystem when it adapts to the ecosystem
● it competes for resources which may drive natove species into extinction
● it may lead to ecological disruption / economic loss

Pollution

● addition of harmful substances to biosphere

● animals and plants can be harmed iof there is intake of contaminated water or air
● uit can endanger the organisms due to the chemicals
● it can cause birth defects
● when the soil absorbs these chemicals, then the plants and burrowing animals are
affected
● as the plants absorb these chemicals int may spread throughot the food chain
● biological magnification / biomagnification - concentration of chemicals increase as it
passes every trophic level

Population using too many resources

Climate change

● acid rain can cause deforestatio and disrupt ph levels

● greenhouse gases increases the gloobl temp
● CFCS deplete the ozone layer
● warm temps are associated with extreme weather patterns, floods and droughts, if
animals are not able to adapt then they may go extinct

Overexploitation

● excessive use of resources for wants, not needs

● done in ways like overfishing and poaching

Inherent characteristics

● characteristics that may make a certain species more vulnerable to extinction

● adaptive traits have respective strengths and weaknesses
Low reproductive rate

● ability to reproduce is low

● the no of offspriong varies
● if infant mortality is high then extinction may be more likely
●
● e.g.
○ blue whale, giant panda, rhino

Specialized niche

● well defined space

● narrow / specific physical, chemical and biological requirements needed for the
species to survive
● e.g.
○ blue whale , panda

Narrow Distribution

● small population
● easily wiped out
● if they are outnumbered by predators then they may just go extinct
●
● e.g.
○ elephant seal, desert pupfish, tamaraw

Feeds at a high trophic level

● hi consumer levels have hi dependency on other consumer levels

● advantageous for predators since they are at the top of the food chain
● disadvantageous for the preys since there are more predators
●
● e.g.
○ bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear

Fixed migratory patterns

● there are animals that migrate to certain places due to change of season
● this is one of the hardest things to conserve
● there are ideal seasons for animas to mate and give birth to offspring
● if these patterns are disrupted then they might give birth too early / latee
● animals are more sensitive to the environment ad heavily depend on it
●
● e.g.
○ blue whale, sea turtle, whooping crane, humpback whale

Rare
 ● small in numbers
● only found in certain places
●
● e.g.
○ african violets, some orchids, philippine crocodile

Commercially valuable

● anything that is used for food, medicine , wood

● something that is collected / attractive
● may be abused and overharvested leading to extinction
●
● e.g.
○ snow leopard, african elephant , tiger, rhino, rare plants, birds

Large territories

● there are animals that need large territories for sufficient prey
● thse who control the trritory controls the resources
●
● e.g.
○ california condor, grizzly bear, florida panther

Endemic species

● species that are only found in a certain space and have a specialized diet