Form 4

st
1 Term
 Cells

Undifferentiated cells are called Stem cells.

The two types of stem cells are ,

1. Embryonic stem cells ( only available at

the embryonic stage ).
2. Adult stem cells ( can be mainly found in
bone marrow ).

Cellulose is a dietary fiber.

A polymer of glucose

Naturally present in plant cell walls

Humans cannot digest cellulose

Help the gut wall muscles to push the food along the
digestive track.

Avoid constipation

Movement of substances in and out of the cell

Diffusion – Movement of particles from high concentration to low concentration.

Factors affecting the rate of Diffusion

Active Transport – The movement of particles against the concentration
Concentration Gradient gradient using the energy from respiration.
Surface area volume Ratio
Osmosis – The net diffusion of water across a partially permeable
The distance
membrane from high water potential to low water potential.
The temperature
rR
 Respiration and Gas Exchange
Respiration – Breaking down of food molecules to release stored chemical energy inside them.

Aerobic Respiration – Breaking down of food using oxygen to release energy.

Anaerobic Respiration – Breaking down of food without using oxygen to release energy.

Oxygen debt – The volume of oxygen needed to completely oxidize and remove the lactic acid that builds
up in the body during anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration in yeast

Tidal Volume – The volume of air Inhaled and exhale din a normal breath.
Vital Capacity – The difference between the maximum breth in and maximum breath
out.
Residual Volume – The volume of air left in the lugs even after a person has exhaled as
much as possible.
Lung Capacity – The total volume of Lungs.
 Form 4
nd
2 Term
 Internal transport
Double circulation – Blood passes twice through the heart while completing one complete circle around
the body.

Pulmonary Circulation – Deoxygenated blood travels to the lungs from the heart and again come back to
the heart as oxygenated blood.

Systemic Circulation – Oxygenated blood travels from heart to all parts of the body through the aorta.

Phagocytes

Lymphocytes

Produce antibodies to fight against strange cells .

Antibodies recognize these cells by antigens or

protein markers.

Antibodies bind to a targeted pathogen cell and

stop it from spreading.

Some antibodies cause bacteria to burst open

Some antibodies can neutralize the bacterial toxins

Some other antibodies act as markers to attract

phagocytes and cause bacteria to clump together.
 Agglutinate – make red blood cells to stick together ( clot )

Antigen A + Antibody A = Agglutinate

Antigen B + Antibody B = Agglutinate

Antigen A + Antibody B = No Agglutination

Antigen B + Antibody A = No Agglutination

Blood Group “O” – Universal Donor

Blood Group “A , B” – Universal Reciever

Coronary Heart Disease ( CHD )

 Caused by blockage of coronary arteries.
 Excess fatty substances can in the arteries form plague which narrows the arteries ( hardening of
arteries or artherosclerosis ).
 When arteries block with plague , it will reduce the supply of nutrients and oxygen to heart
muscles.
 The chest pain is caused due to these blockages called Angina.
  If the arteries are completely blocked , heart muscles will not get oxygen and stop contracting ,
this is called a heart attack.
Risk Factors – Heredity , High blood pressure , Stress , Diabetes , Smoking , Diet.
Recovery Period – The time taken for the heart rate and blood pressure to return to normal.
Treatments for CHD – Statins , Plant stanol esters , Beta Blockers.
Hypertension – High blood pressure in arteries.

Controlling Reactions in the cell

Nucleus Genome  Chromosomes  DNA  Genes  Provide specific instructions to make proteins.
Factors affecting enzyme activity

Temperature
pH
Substrate concentration
Prescence of inhibitors

Immobilized Enzymes

Used in :

 Stain Removers in biological detergents Glucose  Gluconic acid + H2O2

 Conversion of starch to glucose in food industry
 Preservations in food and drinks Converted by Glucose Oxidase.

 Clarification of juices
 Making cheese
 Manufacture of paper
 Detection of blood glucose levels in people with diabetes
 Measuring the level of urea in the blood. Invertase

Form 4
rd
3 Term
Bones , Muscles and Joints

Axial Skeleton : Cranium ( skull )

Sternum
Ribs
Vertebral column