Advanced Studies in Developmental

Disabilities
Dr Muhammad Nadeem Iqbal
ISP
Multan
MPhil: Special Education
Lecture No. 11
Specific Learning Disabilities

 As proposed in the forthcoming Diagnostic

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th
edition (DSM-5), the definition of a learning
disorder (referred to in IDEA 2004 as a specific
learning disability) is a condition that interferes
with the acquisition and use of one or more of
the following academic skills: oral language,
reading, written language, mathematics (Clay,
2011).
 The Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004; PL 108-
446) defines specific learning disability (SLD)
as: “A disorder in one or more of the basic
psychological processes involved in under-
standing or in using language, spoken or writ-
ten, which disorder may manifest in imperfect
ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell,
or do mathematical calculations” (§ 602[26] [a])
 This definition is problematic because it fails
to define the core features or origins of SLD.
The definition does not identify the “basic
psychological processes” of learning or how
marked an “imperfect ability” to learn must be
in order to constitute a disability
 SPECIFIC READING DISABILITY
 Mechanisms of Specific Reading Disability
 Specific reading disability (SRD), also called
developmental dyslexia, is by far the most
commonly recognized form of learning
disability, accounting for nearly half of the
special education population (National
Association of Special Education Teachers
[NASET], 2007).
 Theoretically, any defect in the processing or
interpretation of written words can lead to
SRD.
 Poor reading has been linked to phonological
processing impairments, but these impairments
alone are not sufficient to explain SRD.
 Wolf and Bowers (1999) proposed three
underlying types of specific reading disability:
 1) phonological impairment;
 2) disrupted orthographic processing, which
results from slow naming speed; and
 3) a combination of both impairments.
Individuals who manifest the double
impairment, phonological impairments and
naming speed impairments, are the poorest
readers
 Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is
neurobiological in origin.
 It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or
fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and
decoding abilities.
 Neural Substrates of Reading
 Reading is a dynamic process that develops with age and
experience. It encompasses a wide variety of skills that
develops at varying times.
 Early instruction focuses on learning to read and tar-
gets decoding.
 Later instruction uses reading to learn, and the focus
shifts to comprehension.
 Compensated poor readers recruit additional
brain areas to read.
 Neuroimaging studies in individuals with
dyslexia show reduced engagement of the left
temporparietal cortex for phonological
processing of print, altered white-matter
connectivity, and functional plasticity associated
with effective intervention
SPECIFIC MATHEMATICS DISABILITY

 Three to six percent of individuals have

performance on tests of mathematical
ability that is discrepant from their IQ
scores (Mazzocco, 2007; Shalev & Gross-
Tsur, 2001).
 This percentage may be higher than the
true frequency of a learning disorder in
mathematics.
 Poor performance may be due to a lack of
adequate instruction in areas that are covered by
the assessment measures.
 Another reason for discrepant performance on
math tests may relate to impairments in reading
or executive function rather than mathematics.
 Difficulty with mathematics may manifest in
different ways. Counting, basic calculation,
problem solving, place values (base-10
concepts), equivalence, measurement, time,
relations (as in algebra), and geometry are but
some of the ways that mathematics is expressed.
 Math learning disorder evolves over time.
 Early presentations exhibit difficulty with
retrieval of basic math facts and in computing
arithmetic exercises.
 These have been related to immature counting
skills.
 Older individuals have difficulty in learning
arithmetic tables and comprehending the
algorithms of adding, subtracting, multiplying,
and dividing.
 Neurobiology of Math
 Neurobiological evidence of math learning
disorder is still evolving, and the exact
mechanism remains to be delineated.
 Evidence derived from clinical syndromes,
neuroimaging, and genetics suggest a number of
brain-based impairments.
 Although the clinical syndromes point to a
major role of the parietal lobe in dyscalculia, the
relationship is not simple.
 IMPAIRMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC
LEARNING DISABILITIES
 Memory Impairments
 Impairments in the ability to listen, remember,
and repeat auditory stimuli have been associated
with reading disability.
 The holding of information in immediate and
working memory is essential in learning to read.
 As a result, the student’s ability to use cognitive
behavioral techniques may be limited because
he or she cannot remember a sequence of
problem-solving steps.
 Impairments in Executive Functions
 According to Pennington (1991), executive
functions involve the ability to maintain an
appropriate problem solving set of procedures
for attaining a future goal.
 This includes the ability to
 1) inhibit or defer a response;
 2) fomulate a sequential, strategic plan of action;
and
 3) encode relevant information in memory for
future use.
 Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder
 Approximately one third of individuals with
learning disorders, in fact, have attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), making
this the most common comorbid diagnosis.
Studies have found that the prevalence of
ADHD in individuals with learning disorders is
higher than the prevalence of learning
disordersin individuals with ADHD
 Impairments in Social Cognition
 Impairments in social cognition are noted often
in individuals with learning disorders (Baum-
inger, Edelsztein, & Morash, 2005; Bauminger
& Kimhi-Kind, 2008).
 Such individuals have difficulty understanding
complex emotions, tend to be socially isolated,
may have few close friends, and/or infrequently
participate in social activities.
 The child who has a combination of a
learning disorder, poor pragmatic
language skills, executive function
impairments, and impairments in social
cognition may be difficult to distinguish
from a child who falls on the autism
spectrum.
 It is likely that these conditions will be
more closely linked in the future.
 Emotional and Behavior Disorders
 Although associated emotional and behavioral
impairments may represent endogenous bio-
logical conditions, they also may result from the
child’s experiences of school failure.
 Individuals with learning disorders can exhibit
con- duct disorders, withdrawal, poor self-
esteem, and depression, but there is no
connection of these social/emotional disorders
to the pro- vision of services for students with a
specific learning disability as mandated in
federal law.
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

 The assessments used to identify students with a

specific learning disability are individually
administered tests designed to reveal both the
strengths and the challenges of the child so that
comprehensive recommendations can be made
to support the student.
 A school team, including the parent and student
(when appropriate) reviews all assessments and
determines the appropriate level of services
needed to accommodate the student’s learning
needs.
 Recommendations may include specific
programmatic interventions in reading, writing
or mathematics, grouping strategies, or even
additional therapeutic interventions from
specialists
 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
 The primary goal of intervention is to facilitate
the acquisition and expression of the knowledge
needed for effective performance in school and
then in the workplace.
 The objectives are to achieve academic
competence, treat associated impairments, and
prevent adverse mental health outcomes.
 In addition to treating the core learning
disorder, intervention strategies need to
focus on associated cognitive, attention,
language, perceptual, and sensory
impairments.
 Immaturity, lack of motivation, and poor
impulse control also must be considered
in determining the child’s needs for
remediation
Instructional and Other Types of
Interventions
 Reading
 In 2000, the National Reading Panel released its report
on research-based reading instruction.
 The panel identified the following six essential
components to a sound reading program:
 1) phonemic awareness;
 2) phonics skills;
 3) fluency, accuracy, speed, and expression; 4) reading
comprehension strategies to enhance understanding;
 5) teacher education; and
 6) computer technology
 Reading proficiency depends on phonological
processing and alphabetical mapping.
 Phonics instruction, however, is different from
phonological awareness training (Shaywitz, 2005).
 Clark and Uhry (1995) defined phonics as a low level of
rote knowledge of the association between letters and
sounds.
 In elementary school, reading instruction includes
methods designed to increase skills in acquiring
vocabulary, using syntax, and under- standing meaning.
Many different approaches are proposed for the teaching
of reading.
 Middle School and High School
 The mandates of No Child Left Behind, as well as the
requirements of school districts for the acquisition of
credits toward graduation, have raised the bar for the
attainment of a diploma.
 In addition, a diploma is not acquired by passing courses
alone. High school students must demonstrate the ability
to pass statewide- standardized measures of mastery of
core subjects as well.
 The demands of middle school and the pressures of high
school programs can be very trying for students with
learning disorders.
 As individuals move from the structure of elementary
school to middle and high school, the demands of
content reading become an additional burden.
 Writing
 As much as reading dominates the
instructional day of students with SRD,
students with dysgraphia have specific
disabilities in processing and reporting
information in written form.
 Writing is firmly connected to reading and
spelling because comprehension and
exposition of these skills are demonstrated
through production of written symbols as
indicators of understanding
 Remedial and instructional techniques that are helpful
with problems of written expression include the use of
1) open- ended sentences;
 2) probable passages (a strategy used to draw on a
student’s prior knowledge of a topic while incorporating
writing into a basic reading lesson);
 3) journal keeping; 4) modified writing systems, using
rebuses or other sym- bols; and
 5) newspapers and other print media to demonstrate
various writing styles and organizational models.
 Writing is also a socio-cultural endeavor, representing a
cognitive process learned through dialogic interactions,
expressing the social and cultural perspectives of the
student
 Mathematics
 Students with a math learning disorder have an
impaired ability to perform basic math
operations (i.e., addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division) and/or to apply those
operations to daily situations (Mazzocco, 2007;
Raghubar et al., 2009).
 Often, however, the problem is in understanding
the abstract concepts of mathematical usage
(Mabbott & Bisanz, 2008).
 When students with dyscalculia have only
written math problems to solve, the concepts
remain vague.
 When functional applications (e.g.,
involving money, time) and manipulatives
are used, however, the student can connect
the concepts to their practical applications
and demonstrate greater understanding.
 Counseling
 Counseling may be required to treat underlying
mental health issues in children with a learning
disorder.
 This can be provided individually or in groups.
Family-centered counseling also may be
appropriate. Issues to be discussed may include
homework, behavior management techniques,
parental expectations, and the child’s self-
esteem.
 Families also should be provided a source of
information about learning disorders, support
groups, and their legal rights and responsibilities
in the education of their child.
 Medication
 Although learning disorders cannot be “cured”
through the use of medication, certain associated
impairments that affect learning, such as ADHD
(see Chapter 22) and behavior and emotional
disorders (see Chapter 29), can be improved
with the use of psychoactive drugs.
 If such drugs are used, their effectiveness must
be monitored care- fully. Medication should
never be a substitute for sound educational
programming.
Homework

 The home and school should be able to

function in partnership so that homework
does not lead to tension among family
members or misunderstanding of the
teacher’s intent in providing the home
assignment.
 This may require assisting the parent to
set up a workable system and schedule at
home.
 OUTCOME
 Academic preparation of students with learning
disorders is permitting more and more students to pursue
postsecondary education.
 However, the average college student with SRD reads
only at about a tenth-grade level (Hughes & Smith,
1990; Mason & Mason, 2005).
 These students also read more slowly, make more
spelling errors, and acquire less information from texts.
 They tend to have difficulty in writing essays,
completing heavy reading assignments, scoring well on
timed tests, and learning foreign languages
 Students with learning disorders
often feel that homework is an
imposition, providing no personal
fulfillment or advancement (Nicholls,
McKenzie, & Shufro, 1994), so
individualization and creative use of
assignments is essential for
homework to fulfill its reinforcing
purpose.
 Career education should be an objective of educational
programming beginning in the primary grades.
 Such training for students with learning disabilities
begins with realistic counseling resulting from a
comprehensive assessment of abilities and aptitudes.
 Without appropriately directed training, students may be
unable to support themselves in an independent manner
as adults; also, if vocational rehabilitative services are
delayed until adulthood, they are less likely to be
effective.
 The design of these programs becomes part of the
student’s IEP
ALLAHA HAFIZ