FDS: LECTURE
LESSON 1: Basic Concepts in Food
Science
● FOOD SCIENCE
- The study of the chemical, physical and
microbiological nature of foods and any
transformation that food undergoes as
reflected in its characteristics and
properties
● FOOD
- physiological: any substance which
when taken into the body provides
energy, builds and repairs tissues and
regulates bodily processes
- biological: any substance when eaten
sustains life and nourishes the body
- socio-cultural: any substance that
satisfies the human senses as well as
emotional needs.
● NATURAL FOOD
- A food product made without chemical
or artificial additives
● ORGANIC FOOD
- Agricultural products grown and
processed without using growth
hormones, antibiotics, or
petroleum-based or sewage
sludge-based fertilizer
● FOOD QUALITY
- Collective term for all the attributes or
characteristics of a food which
determine whether it is acceptable or
not
● FOOD ADDITIVE
- A substance added intentionally or
unintentionally to food that becomes
part of the food and affects its character
● FUNCTIONAL FOOD
- Food or beverage that imparts a
physiological benefit that enhances
overall health, helps prevent or treat a
disease or condition, or improves
physical/mental performance
● PHYTOCHEMICALS
- Chemical compounds in plants that are
important to promote healthful reactions
in the body but are not classified as
nutrients required for life and growth
● GENETICALLY MODIFIED
ORGANISM(GMO)
- Plant or animal foods developed by
genetic manipulation to alter nutrient
levels or other characteristics
● DISPERSION
- Mixture produced by scattering one
material in another and this could be
homogeneous and heterogeneous
● PROBIOTIC FOOD
- Foods which contain a live
microbiological culture either as a result
of fermentation or as an intentional
addition by the manufacturer; healthful
for normal intestinal function; prevent
harmful bacteria from causing disease
● PREBIOTICS
- Non-digestible carbohydrates that act as
food for probiotics
LESSON 2: Physical & Chemical Properties
of Food
➔ The changes food undergo during
cooking and processing can be
explained by their physical properties
★ States of Matter
1. Solids – substances that do not flow
under moderate stress; state of matter
which is in comparatively low energy
state; molecules move slowly within a
defined space
2. Liquids – substances which exhibit flow
properties
3. Gasses– the distance between
molecules is extremely great; molecules
move constantly and relatively faster
than molecules in liquids; have the
ability to increase in volume and
develop pressure as heat is applied.
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★ Dispersion Systems in Food

1. True Solutions
- a uniform liquid mixture containing a
solute and a solvent
2. Colloidal Systems
- a two-phase system in which particles
called micelles (discontinuous phase)
have diameters between 1 millimicron
and 0.1 micron
- the dispersing medium may be gas,
liquid or a solid substance containing Chemical Composition of Food
either gas, liquid, or solid micelles ● Table 2. Chemical Composition of
Food
➢ Four common types of colloidal
systems in food:
1. Sol – a liquid gel; the mixture can be
poured like true solutions
- Ex. Hot gelatin before it sets; dilute
starch in hot water
2. Gel – resembles solid in that it has
shape and cannot be poured
- Ex. Gelatin (solidified sol); starchy
puddings; custards
3. Foam – gas is dispersed in liquid or
solid medium
- Ex. Liquid foam - (beating egg whites,
whipping of cream, aerating
carbonated drinks)
- Solid foam – (marshmallows, gelatin
sponge, leavened breads, baked
sponge cakes
4. Suspensions – these rarely occur in
foods; with particles greater than 0.1 ➔ WATER
micron in diameter - The most abundant compound in food
- Ex. Raw starch granules dispersed in ➔ CARBOHYDRATES
cold water - Hydrates of carbon
- General formula Cx (H20)y
● Table 1. Examples of colloidal ➔ PROTEINS
systems in foods: - Polymer of amino acids linked together by
peptide bonds
➔ FAT
- A triglyceride, which is an organic esters of
3 molecules of fatty acids combined w/ one
molecule of glycerol

➔ VITAMINS
- General term given to a group of organic
substances that are present in food in
minute quantities
- It is essential for normal health & growth
➔ MINERALS
- An inorganic element that remains ash
when food is burned
- Classified as either water (B-complex
vitamins and Vitamin C) or fat soluble
(vitamins A, D, E, K)
➔ PIGMENTS
- In plants, include chlorophyll and
carotenoids w/c are fat soluble and
flavonoids and tannins w/c are water
soluble
- In animals, hemoglobin in blood and
myoglobin in the muscle
LESSON 3: Heat in Food Preparation
Common Pigments found in Food
➔ ENZYMES
- Organic catalysts that are produced by
living cells that is responsible for the most
of the chemical reactions and energy
transformation in both plants and animals
➔ GUMS
- A diverse group of polysaccharides usually
isolated from seeds and is highly viscous
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- Used as food ingredient for their thickening,
gelling, and stabilizing properties
➔ ORGANIC ACIDS
- Organic compounds w/ acidic properties.
➔ TANNINS
- Compounds in tea, coffee, wine, grapes,
peas and lentils, which can denature protein
and bind iron.
- Considered as phytochemicals that are
antioxidants
➔ ESTERS
- A chemical compound derived from an acid
(organic or inorganic) in w/c at least one
–OH (hydroxyl) group is replaced by an –O
alkyl (alkoxy) group.
➔ KETONES
- Compound containing the carbonyl group
(C=O) derived from oxidation of a secondary
alcohol.
➢ HEAT
- A form of energy due to the vibratory or
kinetic movement of molecules; its intensity
(hotness) is measured by degrees
Centigrade or Celsius and degrees
Fahrenheit
➢ COOKING
- Refers to the process and techniques of
using food or combinations of foods as to
achieve a product w/c is edible, palatable,
aesthetically pleasing, nutritious and
microbiologically safe w/ application or
removal (by freezing) of heat.
➢ CONDUCTION
- The direct transfer of heat via metals or any
heat conducting materials containing the
food.
- Copper has the highest rate of conductivity
while glass is the poorest
➢ CONVECTION
- Transfer of thermal energy from electricity,
gas, or solid fuel to the vapor molecules of
the air w/c in turn heat the food or the
utensil it comes in contact with

➢ RADIATION
- Transfer of heat from a red coil of the griller,
toaster or stove to the food
➢ MICROWAVE
- Method of heat transfer that uses
electromagnetic waves generated by the
magnetron (a special vacuum tube); these
waves penetrate the food disturbing the
molecular structure; causing friction and
developing heat that cooks food in a
relatively short time.
Physio-Chemical Changes in Food During
Preparation
A. EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT
➢ PROTEIN – heat causes coagulation and
eventual denaturation of protein in foods
like meat, eggs, poultry
➢ FATS – fats can be removed or absorbed;
overheating results in the formation of
acrolein w/c is the characteristics flavor of
burnt oil; reheating oil causes lowering of
the smoke point and reversion of flavor
➢ STARCH- with water when heated, results in
an increased in viscosity in the process
called gelatinization (moist cooking) and
therefore, is useful as thickener or binder;
- with (dry heat), such as roasting or toasting,
starch is changed to dextrin in the process
of dextrinization
➢ SUGAR
- sucrose added w/ water raises boiling point
- At 160˚C, the sucrose concentration is
100%; at temperatures above 160˚C
(melting point of sugar) sugar melts and
sucrose changes color from white to brown
B. EFFECT OF COLD
➢ Temperature change of food from room to
cold to frozen affects both the functional
and eating qualities of food such as
difficulty in separating egg white from the
yolk; meat improves tenderness and flavor
when frozen; softening of fruits and
vegetables occur during cold storage and
freezer burn occurs
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C. EFFECT OF ACID
➢ Chlorophyll changes into undesirable olive
green color
➢ Too acidic jelly will result to syneresis
➢ Viscosity and texture are affected such as
vinegar and citric acid reduce the thickness
of the hot starch paste and the firmness of
the cooled paste; this is why accurate
measurement of acid in starch-thickened
products like pie filling is critical, otherwise
the product becomes “runny”
D. PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL TREATMENT
➢ Agitation and stirring
➢ Whipping or beating – introduces air into a
mixture resulting in tenderness and greater
stability as foam cakes
➢ Kneading – allows alignment of the gluten
network resulting in tenderness in baked
products and allows gas produced by the
yeast during fermentation to get trapped in
the gluten network w/c is responsible for
the volume of the read when baked
LESSON 4: Assessment of Food Quality
❖ FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
- Study of microscopic organisms and their
activities, their characteristics and their
beneficial and harmful effects to food and
man
❖ FOOD INFECTION
- An illness resulting from ingestion of food
containing large numbers of living bacteria
or other microorganisms
❖ FOOD INTOXICATION
- Caused by the ingestion of toxins or
poisonous substances produced by
pathogenic microorganism
❖ FOODBORNE ILLNESS
- A disease of an infectious or toxic nature
caused by the consumption of food and
water
❖ OUTBREAK
- The occurrence of two or more cases of a
similar illness resulting from ingestion of a
common food

❖ FOOD SAFETY
- The overall quality of food fit for
consumption
- Sanitary quality; freedom from pathogenic
microorganisms; toxins and other biological
hazards; absence of physical and chemical
contaminants, and safe level of food
additives
❖ MICROORGANISMS
- Unicellular (one-celled) living things.
❖ CONTAMINATION
- The unintended presence of harmful
substances in food or drink
❖ CROSS-CONTAMINATION
- The transfer of germs or microbes from one
food item to another via a nonfood surface
or equipment
SUGAR AND SUGAR COOKERY
Classification of Sugar
A. Classification According to Chemical
Form
B. Classification According to Source
C. Classification According to Market Form
Classification According to Chemical Form
1. Monosaccharides – carbohydrate
molecules that cannot be broken down
to simpler carbohydrates by hydrolysis
Examples:
● Glucose (or grape sugar)
● Fructose (or fruit sugar/levulose)
● Galactose
➔ Glucose (Grape Sugar, Physiologic
Sugar)
● Found in fruits and plant saps
● Hydrolyzed from maltose, lactose or
sucrose
➔ Fructose (Levulose, Fruit Sugar)
● Found in fruits, honey or plant saps.
● Present in sugar mixtures like molasses
and invert sugar
● Hydrolyzed form of sucrose and inulin
● Sweetest of natural sugars
➔ Galactose
● Does not occur in free nature but is
hydrolyzable from lactose or milk sugar
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2. Disaccharides
- sugars composed of two
monosaccharide units. Upon hydrolysis
they yield two molecules of
monosaccharides.
Examples:
● Sucrose = glucose + fructose
● Maltose = glucose + glucose
● Lactose = glucose + galactose
➔ Sucrose (Table Sugar, Cane Sugar,
Beet Sugar)
● Found in many fruits and vegetables
● Hydrolyzed into one molecule of
glucose and fructose
● Commercially prepared as sugar
cane or sugar beets
➔ Lactose (Milk Sugar)
● Primarily found in dairy products
● See lactose intolerance (Page 219)
➔ Maltose (Malt Sugar)
● Hydrolyzes 2 molecules of glucose
● Found in cereals and starches
➔ Syrup
- sugary solutions varying in viscosity,
carbohydrate concentration, and
flavor
A. Cane Syrup – made by boiling the
sugar cane sap to a concentrated
solution
B. Molasses – the residue that remains
after sucrose crystals have been
removed from the concentrated juice
of sugar cane or beet
C. Refiner’s Syrup – the liquor that
remain after crystallization of
sucrose during the refining process
D. Sorghum Syrup – made from
sorghum, a cane plant that grows
easily in temperate climates
E. Maple Syrup – made by
evaporating sap of sugar maple tree
to a concentration containing no
more than 35% water

F. Corn Syrup – a viscous liquid
containing maltose, dextrin, dextrose
and other polysaccharides; can
control crystallization in candy
making and has moisture–
containing properties; prepared by
partial hydrolysis of starch with acid
G. High Fructose-Corn Syrup (HFCS)
– differs from the conventional corn
syrup because it contains fructose
and levulose in a high range of
42–90%.
H. Honey – comes from nectars of
flowers that is collected, modified
and concentrated by the honeybees;
locally known as “pulut pukyutan”
-*strained honey – sold in the local
market; a thick syrup separated from
the comb
I. Invert Sugar – an equal mixture of
glucose and fructose, created by
hydrolyzing sucrose; it resist
crystallization and yields a smooth
melt–in–the–mouth texture
Characteristics of Sugar
1. Sweetness
- sugars differ in their ability to
sweeten bland foods or minimize
sour tastes
2. Solubility
- sugar’s ability to dissolve in water
- rise in temperature increases
solubility of sugar
3. Crystallization
- important in candy making
- crystal formation determines the
finished product’s quality
4. Browning Reactions
- involve sugar and protein due to
Maillard reaction
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5. Caramelization
- results when sugar is heated
6. Hygroscopicity (moisture absorption)
- sugars can attract and retain
moisture
*fructose absorbs the most moisture
7. Texture
- the texture of many processed food
relies on sweeteners
*without sugar, soft drinks feel flat in
the mouth
8. Fermentation
- carbohydrates ferment (ex.
manufacture of beers, wines,
cheeses, yogurts, and certain
breads)
9. Preservation
- high concentrations of sugar act as
preservative by preventing the
growth of microorganisms; increase
the osmotic pressure by dehydrating
the bacteria or yeast cells
Manufacture of Sugar
● Cane sugar, which is the sole source
of table sugar in the Philippines, is
manufactured by extracting the juice
from crushed sugar cane
● The juice is then purified, by heating
w/ lime. The purified juice is
evaporated into a concentrated
syrup until crystals are formed.
● The crystals are washed,
redissolved, decolorized and
recrystallized in several stages:
brown, light brown, golden or yellow,
off-white and finally to pure white
refined sugar.
Market Forms of Sugar
1. Crystalline (or granulated sugar) -
most common form of table sugar
Ex. dextrose and table sugar
2. Sanding Sugar - coarsely
granulated for decorative purposes

3. Superfine Sugar- specially
screened, uniformly fine–grained
sugar for rapid solution
4. Powdered (or confectioner’s
sugar)- machine–ground from
granulated sucrose; small quantities
of cornstarch are added to prevent
caking
5. Lump Sugar – prepared by pressing
wet sugar crystals into a loaf form,
hardened and then cut into cubes or
tablets
6. Brown Sugar – partially purified
product of crystals varying from very
light to very dark brown
7. Raw Brown Sugar (or moscovado
sugar) – unrefined product
separated from molasses; crystals
are dark, coarse and sticky because
they contain some molasses
8. Panutsa – a crude form of sugar;
sugar cane extract is evaporated
into a brown syrup concentrate and
molded in polished, small–halved
coconut shells
9. Washed Sugar- sucrose crystal
which is one step short of the
complete refining process
Chemical Reactions of Sugar
1. Hydrolysis – uptake of sugar
(sucrose) of a molecule of water and
the resultant splitting into two
component monosaccharides
Hydrolysis or inversion of sucrose:
2. Caramelization – series of chemical
reactions which take place when dry
sugar is heated to intense
temperatures yielding polymers
ranging in size from trisaccharides to
oligosaccharides.
* the product is called caramel
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3. Maillard Reaction – non–enzymatic
browning that occurs when a protein
and a sugar are heated or stored
together for some time.
Ex. crust of a cake
4. Effect of sugars on Freezing and
Boiling Points
*Colligative Property: the higher the
concentration of sugar, the greater
the effect on freezing and boiling
points
5. Fermentation
- glucose is highly fermentable by
yeast, sucrose, invert sugar, corn
syrup, and fructose
- lactose is acted upon by lactic acid
bacteria to produce lactic acid
- starch yields maltose which is
fermentable by carbohydrate; further
enzyme action by the yeast
produces carbon dioxide and water
(leavening agents of bread)
Functions of Sugar in Food Preparation,
Principles, Application
A. Sweetening Agent
*provides sweetness to food
*has the function of altering other
basic tastes (reduces the sharp
tartness or acidity of a food and it
tones down saltiness)
B. Main Ingredient
*sugar in confections like candies
and icings, acts as the structural
foundation of the product
C. Preserving Agent
*in highly sugared products (candied
fruits, jams, jellies); has a
dehydrating effect on spoilage of
microorganisms
*binds with water resulting in a
reduced availability of the water for
microbial activity

D. Colorant and Flavoring Agent
*brown sugar, molasses, maple
syrup, caramelized sugar, and honey
provide distinct color and subtle
flavor to food
*caramelized sugar provides a
golden brown color and flavor
E. Texture Modifier
*due to crystallization, aeration,
foaming, and its viscosity and
hygroscopicity (fudges,
marshmallows, taffy, frozen
desserts, sponge cakes, and icings)
F. Peptizing Agent
*in batters and doughs, sugar in
increasing amounts prevents gluten
development resulting a tender,
moist product
G. Volume and Structure Improver
*in jellies, cakes, and cookies, sugar
is part of the framework and volume
of the product
*in jelly, it precipitates pectins and
together they form the network for
gel formation
*in yeast breads, sugar is the food
for the yeast growth and indirectly it
contributes to the volume because of
the accompanying formation of
gaseous carbon dioxide which
leavens the bread
*in pound cakes and cookies in
which the irregular crystal surfaces
of the sugar are able incorporate air
as it is whipped or beaten with
plastic fat
H. Humectant
*because of its hygroscopic ability,
products with added sugar,
especially fructose and invert sugar,
keep food moist and soft
I. Tenderizing Effect
*delays gel formation and results in
a more tender product
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*examples are protein gels like
custards and in starchy sauces or
puddings
*excess sugar, however, results in a
runny or liquefied product
Alternative Sweeteners
- non–nutritive substances providing
minimal to zero calories
Sweeteners Approved by US FDA:
1. Saccharin
*500x sweeter than sucrose with a bitter
aftertaste
*Ex. Sweet–n–Low
2. Aspartame
*180x sweeter than sucrose; a synthetic
combination of two
amino acids (aspartic acid and
phenylalanine)
*it is metabolized to phenylalanine and
should not be
consumed by individuals with
phenylketonuria or PKU
*Ex. NutraSweet, Spoonful, Equal
3. Acesulfame–K
*130x sweeter than sucrose with a bitter
aftertaste
*Ex. Sunette, Sweet One
4. Sucralose
*a modified form of sucrose but 600x
sweeter
*Splenda
5. Neotame
*8 000x sweeter than sugar and has no
calories
*made from amino acids (aspartic acid and
phenylalanine) but not
metabolized to phenylalanine
Criteria for an item to be considered as a
food