FAQ: Science and the Aftermath of

Fukushima Nuclear Plant Accident

Radiation

1. What is the process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through a medium
or space?

Radiation is the process in which energetic particles or energetic waves travel through space
(by definition).

2. What is the difference between ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation?

In ionizing radiation, the energy involved is large enough to be able to remove electrons from
atoms whereas in non-ionizing radiation, the energy involved is not large enough to be able to
remove electrons from atoms.

3. What percentage of radiation can be blocked by the most advanced protective suit recently?

You can get some hints by visiting the following link.

Link: http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/travelinginspace/radiation_shielding.html (Links to
an external site.)

4. Black objects are good radiation absorber and good radiation emitter at the same time. Is
there any contradiction between the two properties?

There is no contradiction. Strictly speaking, the heat transfer rate of black substance is the
highest among the transfer rates of materials of other colours, so black objects absorb and
emit radiation very fast. Therefore, it is a good radiation absorber and emitter at the same
time.

5. How harmful can radiation be?

It can kill a person within a very short period of time.

6. How much is too much radiation?

When a person is exposed to radiation that is equivalent of 40,000 chest X-rays in a short
time, cancers and sickness can develop inside the body.

7. Does radiation harm plants?

Yes, radiation can lead to abnormalities in plants.

8. What are the differences between radiation and ultraviolet light?

Radiation is a big group while ultraviolet light falls into the group of radiation.
 9. What is the relationship between radiation and light?

Light is radiation but radiation is not necessarily light. Radiation is a big group while light
falls in the group of radiation.

10. If radiation spreads via polluted air/dust particles, can we stop its spread by creating artificial
rain to make it fall on the ground?

Contaminated particles do not necessarily fall on the ground even there is rain.

11. How does radiation work to treat cancer?

Light is a kind of radiation. Photodynamic therapy is one of the methods which employs light
to treat cancers. Please watch the pre-seminar material or the seminar of "Photodynamic
Therapy" for further details.

12. How to stop gamma radiation which cannot be stopped by lead?

A thick layer of lead can stop gamma rays.

13. Can C60 prevent radiation?

Dendrofullerene (C60DF) is a chemical radioprotector.

Light and Photons

1. Is light a particle?

Light is made up of particles called photons. Please watch the pre-seminar material and the
seminar of "Colour Chemistry" for further information.

2. How many kinds of light are there in the earth that humans cannot see?

Human eyes can only see visible light. For the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum, please
watch the pre-seminar material and the seminar of "Colour Chemistry" for further
information.

3. Do all photons come from the electronic transition?

No

4. How would the mass of light be calculated by using the known deflection of its path when
near large gravitating objects?

Light is made up of photons and photons are massless.

5. Is light a kind of radiation? Why can black hole absorb light? And why could we go back to
the past if we could move faster than light?

Yes
 6. Why can black hole absorb light? And why could we go back to the past if we could move
faster than light?

Please take a look at question 24 in the following article for further information.
Link: http://www.astro.umd.edu/~miller/teaching/questions/blackholes.html (Links to an
external site.)

Radioactivity

1. How does the radioactivity of an object change with time?

The radioactive decay of a substance follows the first order chemical kinetic. The initial
population of atoms is denoted as N0 and the final population is denoted as N. Then the
relationship of the change of population with time is then

where t is time and is the decay constant.

2. How can we measure the radioactivity of an atom or a chemical? What is the principle of
instrument that measures radioactivity?

A radiation dosimeter is used to measure the radioactive materials around us. Please visit the
following link for the working principle of it.
Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescent_dosimeter (Links to an external site.)

3. How to detect the ages of an object through its radioactivity?

The method is called Carbon-14 dating. Please visit the following link for detailed
explanation.
Link: http://www.ndt-
ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Radiography/carbon14dating.htm (Links to an
external site.)

4. What is the radioactivity in the atmosphere at Australia?

Please visit the following link for further information.

Link: http://www.sunshinecoastdaily.com.au/story/2012/01/14/radiation-cloud-not-harmful-
sunshine-coast/ (Links to an external site.)

5. Why are some elements radioactive?

Please visit the following link for explanation.

Link: http://www.pa.msu.edu/sciencet/ask_st/060194.html (Links to an external site.)

6. What is the difference between radiation and radioactivity?

Please visit the following link for further information.

Link: http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/understand/radiation.html (Links to an external site.)

Nuclear Energy
 1. How much energy can be produced by 1 uranium atom? Can it be measured?

1 uranium atom can produce 3.244 x 10-11 J by fission. I think the amount of energy produced
in fission is measurable.

2. Why will more energy be released in nuclear fusion than in nuclear fission?

Please visit the following link for detailed explanation.

Link: http://www.physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae534.cfm (Links to an external site.)

3. In 2012, how many countries are using the nuclear energy?

30

4. Is nuclear energy irreplaceable nowadays and we have to use it as a energy source for future
development?

What do you think about it nowadays? France is the only country that uses nuclear power as
the primary source of electricity. Now, do you think nuclear energy is irreplaceable?

5. How to control the nuclear energy released from the nuclear plant?

Control rods are used.

6. How to turn nuclear energy into electricity?

Energy released in nuclear reactions is used to heat up water to produce steam and steam is
able to turn the turbine to generate electricity.

7. What is the mechanism of burning mixed oxide fuel to generate nuclear energy?

Please read the following article for your further information.

Link: http://www.nirs.org/factsheets/moxproliferation.htm (Links to an external site.)

Fusion and Fission

1. What is the difference between fusion and fission?

Please visit the following link for explanation.

Link:
http://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry/Nuclear_Chemistry/Nu
clear_Fission_vs._Nuclear_Fusion

2. Will nuclear fusion be a way of generating energy in the future? Will it have higher
efficiency than nuclear fission?

Please visit the following link for further information.

Link:
https://www.ted.com/talks/steven_cowley_fusion_is_energy_s_future?language=en (Links to
an external site.)Nuclear fusion is more efficient than nuclear fission.
 3. Why do nuclear plants seldom use nuclear fusion to generate electricity?

Generation of electricity with nuclear fusion is still under development.

4. Why should U-235 be used in nuclear fission but not U-238?

U-235 is fissionable while U-238 is not fissionable.

5. Where does fusion take place on earth?

Fusion does not take place on earth because the temperature is not high enough to allow for
fusion to take place.

Nuclear Plant Accidents

1. I watch an advertisement which shows that everything has radiation. In my mind, if radiation
leaks out, how to protect ourselves immediately?

Stay at home, and listen to what the government suggests the public to do.

2. Why is the place of radiation accident blocked above twenty years?

There is still massive radiation which is not suitable to stay.

3. What makes the difference between Chernobyl nuclear plant accident in Russia and the cities
in Japan (Hiroshima-shi Nagasaki-shi) that were blown by nuclear bomb?

Please visit the following link for further explanation.

Link: http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/features/chernobyl-15/cherno-faq.shtml (Links to an
external site.)

4. What are the risks and clean-up work for nuclear energy leakage?

There are still a lot of radioactive materials and works may not be able to stay at the plant for
a long time. There are also problems of nuclear waste treatment and disposal.

5. Is it necessary for us to buy some devices to detect the radiation level so as to protect
ourselves?

A radiation dosimeter can only give you the radiation level but it can't protect humans against
radiation.

6. Will nuclear accident/explosion affect the environment permanently or for a long term? If
not, should people reconsider the possibility that nuclear energy can replace the traditional
energy?

Nuclear accident and explosion can affect the environment for a long time.

Particles and Atoms

1. Are there any ways to see the atoms like using a microscope?

Yes, scanning tunneling microscope (STM) allows you to see and manipulate an atom. Please
watch the seminar, "Nanomaterials for Energy and Environmental Applications" for further
information.

2. What is the activity of the collision of particle in hot weather?

At high temperature, the collision frequency of atoms/molecules is very high.

3. Why do the gamma particles have greater harmful effects than alpha and beta particles?

Please refer to the pre-seminar material of "Science and the Aftermath of Fukushima Nuclear
Plant Accident".

4. What is particle theory?

Please visit the following link for further information.

Link: http://www.le.ac.uk/se/centres/sci/selfstudy/particle01.html (Links to an external site.)

5. Is atom the smallest thing in the Earth?

No

6. As radioactive atoms go through the transition to a stable state, they will emit radiation in
several forms. What are they?

Please review the pre-seminar material.

7. Why is gamma ray not made up by particles?

Please refer to the pre-seminar material of "Science and the Aftermath of Fukushima Nuclear
Plant Accident".

8. Can radioactive particles spread through atmosphere?

Yes, radioactive particles can be transported by air and water.

9. Why can two small particles release very strong energy when they crash?

The amount of energy released is the binding energy of the two small particles. The binding
energy is calculated by using the equation E = (m1 -m2)c2 where c is the speed of light (3.0 x
108 m/s). Even though the masses of the two small particles are very very small, c2 is a very
large number, so the resulting number (energy) is still a huge number.

10. Why does helium not contain neutrons?

Helium contains neutrons. Please review the pre-seminar material.

Radioactive Waste Treatment

1. What can be used to store radioactive waste so as to reduce the amount of radiation emitted to
the surroundings?

Leaded containers

2. Is that true that the Janpanese government said the contaminated water will be diluted by sea
water and cause very little or even no effect on humans?

The dilution part of the statement is correct but the harmful effect part of the statement may
not be correct. Scientists are still observing the effects of the nuclear power plant accident.

3. What treatment can we apply to turn contaminated water from undrinkable to drinkable?

Please visit the following site for further information.

Link: http://www.princeton.edu/~oa/manual/water.shtml (Links to an external site.)

4. Contaminated water becomes undrinkable, instead, can contaminated water be used for
generating hydroelectricity?

Water used for hydroelectricity will be discharged to the ocean so I don't think contaminated
water is suitable for hydroelectricity.

5. How can the government treat the contaminated water after nuclear accidents have occurred?

One of the methods in waste water treatment is the use of resin as demonstrated in the
seminar.

6. What diseases are caused by contaminated water?

Leukaemia, cancers, etc

7. If water is contaminated with radiation, will the water emit radiation itself?

The radioactive ions dissolved in water will emit radiation, but H2O will not emit radiation.

8. How does radiation contaminate water? Does it mean that radiation energy causes change in
the structure of water molecules and that "changed" water could harm our body?

Radioactive metal ions can dissolve in water and emit radiation.

Radiation and Health Problems

1. How to confirm the diseases like cancer, gene mutant are caused by the radiation if one area
is polluted?

Biological experiments

2. Are all kinds of radiations bad to human health?

 For very weak radiation, it does not really affect human health. For more information, please
read the pre-seminar material and the seminar of "Colour Chemistry".

3. Which type of radiation is the most contributive to human?

Nuclear power and radiation therapy

4. Both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation can be harmful to organisms. Which one is more
harmful to living organisms and why?

Ionizing radiation is more harmful to living organisms because it can ionize genes, proteins,
and DNA which can lead to mutation and cancers.

5. Can radioactivity be used at medicine in the future? If it can, can it be used in physiotherapy
and how to use? Can you give me some example?

It is called radiation therapy. Radioactive isotopes are used which can release enough energy
to kill the cancer cells. Besides, nuclear medicine also plays an important role. Please visit the
following link for further information.
LInk: http://science.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-medicine.htm (Links to an external site.)

6. 生物的進化過程中能否變成可以抵禦辐射? 有沒有物質會因被辐射照射而產生反應?

Insects resist ionizing radiation very well. Please visit the following link for further
information.
Link: http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2006/02/23/1567313.htm (Links to an external
site.)

Miscellaneous

1. How does hydrogen bomb work?

Hydrogen bomb falls into the category of fusion bomb. Please visit the following link for
further information.

Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon#Basic_principle (Links to an

external site.) (Links to an external site.)

2. What is the universe made of and what is its size?

Please visit the following link for the composition of the universe.

Link: http://science.howstuffworks.com/universe-made-of.htm (Links to an external site.)

Please visit the following link for the size of the universe.

Link: http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/5-
8/features/F_How_Big_is_Our_Universe.html (Links to an external site.)

3. Which country has the biggest site for tidal and water energy?
 China - the biggest site for tidal energy

4. Besides batteries, can mixed oxide fuel be used in any other way in our daily life?

MOX Fuel is not used in batteries. It is used in nuclear and thermal reactors.