MODULE FOR SCI 112

Credits : 4 units lecture and laboratory (4 hours/week)

Pre-Requisite : none
Course Title : Genetics

References:
Book (Pdf):
 Engelkirk, J. & Engelkirk, P. (2011). Microbiology for the Health Sciences. Philadelphia: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins
 Robinson, T. (2010). Genetics for dummies 2nd Edition. Indianapolis, Indiana: Wiley Publishing, Inc.
 Skwarecki, B. (2018). Genetics 101. New Delhi: Adams Media.
Online Resources/References:

 Mitosis vs. Meiosis: Side by Side Comparison -https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrKdz93WlVk

 Monohybrid practice problems 1-3 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxlO_Br-TvA

MODULE 1

Unit 1: GENETICS BASICS

INTRODUCTION

It has been known for thousands of years that biological traits are passed to offspring by their parents who
received these traits from past generations. This fact was most successfully applied by farmers who recognized
the importance of saving the seeds of the best plants for the next year’s crop and using the best animals for
breeding. But until recent times, the scientific mechanisms that drive inheritance were not understood. Today, we
call the scientific study of inheritance genetics.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Define what genetics is
2. Identify the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell
3. Describe the function of each part of the cell
4. Compare the process of mitosis from meiosis
5. Explain different terms and concepts of Mendelian genetics
6. Solve genetic problems in monohybrid, dihybrid and trihybrid crosses

1. DEFINITION OF GENETICS
Genetics is defined as:
 The study of structure and function of DNA, genes, chromosomes and related alterations
 The study of heredity and variation
The term “Genetics” was coined by William Bateson is 1905, and derived from the Greek
words “genetikos” and “genesis”. Genetikos: generative and genesis: origin/creation.

*Because all biology depends on genes, understanding genetics as a foundation for all other life sciences,
including agriculture and medicine, is critical.

 From a historical point of view, genetics is still a young science. The principles that govern inheritance
of traits by one generation from another were described less than 150 years ago.
 Around the turn of the 20th century, the laws of inheritance were rediscovered, an event that
transformed biology forever. But even then, the importance of the star of the genetics show, DNA,
wasn’t really understood until the 1950s.

1.1 BRANCHES OF GENETICS

Genetics is generally divided into four major subdivisions:
1. Classical or Mendelian genetics: A discipline that describes how physical characteristics (traits) are
passed along from one generation to another.
  Classical genetics is the genetics of individuals and their families. It focuses mostly on studying
physical traits, or phenotypes, as a stand-in for the genes that control appearance.
 Gregor Johann Mendel, a monk and scientist, founded the entire discipline of genetics. Mendel was
a gardener with an insatiable curiosity to go along with his green thumb. His observations have been
simple, but his conclusions were distinct. Even he had no access to technology yet he determined,
with accuracy, how inheritance works.
 Classical genetics is sometimes referred to as:
o Mendelian genetics
o Transmission genetics: This term refers to the fact that classical genetics describes how traits
are passed on, or transmitted, by parents to their offspring.

2. Molecular genetics: The study of the chemical and physical structures of DNA, RNA, and proteins.
Molecular genetics also covers how genes do their jobs.

 The study of gene expression, genotypes, and how the genetic code works at the levels of DNA and
RNA are considered parts of molecular genetics.
 Research on the causes of cancer and the hunt for a cure focuses on the molecular side of things,
because changes (mutations) occur at the chemical level of DNA.
 Gene therapy, genetic engineering and cloning are all sub-disciplines of molecular genetics.
 The focus of molecular genetics includes the physical and chemical structures of the double helix,
DNA, The messages hidden in your DNA (your genes) constitute the building instructions for your
appearance and everything else about you.

3. Population genetics: A division of genetics that looks at the genetic makeup of larger groups.

 Population genetics is the study of the genetic diversity of a subset of a particular species. It is a
search for patterns that help describe the genetic signature of a particular group, such as the
consequences of travel, isolation (from other populations), mating choices, geography, and behavior.

 Describing the genetics of populations from a mathematical standpoint is critical to forensics. To

pinpoint the uniqueness of one DNA fingerprint, geneticists have to sample the genetic fingerprints
of many individuals and decide how common or rare a particular pattern may be.

 Medicine also uses population genetics to determine how common particular mutations are and to
develop new medicines to treat disease. Also, evolutionary genetics, or how traits change over time,
is an addition to this branch.

4. Quantitative genetics: A highly mathematical field that examines the statistical relationships between
genes and the traits they encode.
 Mathematical in nature, quantitative genetics takes a rather complex statistical approach to estimate
how much variation in a particular trait is due to the environment and how much is actually genetic.

 One application of quantitative genetics is determining how heritable a particular trait is. This
measure allows scientists to make predictions about how offspring will turn out based on
characteristics of the parent organisms. Heritability gives some indication of how much a
characteristic (like seed production) can change when selective breeding (or, in evolutionary time,
natural selection) is applied.

ACTIVITY #1
Reflection: Answer each question in 5-10 sentences.

1. What branch of genetics have caught your interest the most and why?
2. What branch of genetics do you think is the most critical to study at this world crisis (pandemic)? Why?
2. THE CELL AND CELL REPRODUCTION
Genetics and the study of how cells work are closely related. The process of passing genetic material from
one generation to the next depends completely on how cells grow and divide.

2.1 TYPES OF CELL

There are two basic kinds of cell:
 Prokaryotic cell lack a nucleus and therefore have DNA floating loosely in the liquid center of the
cell.
 Eukaryotic cell has a well-defined nucleus to house and protect the DNA

 All bacteria, regardless of temperament, are simple, one-celled, prokaryotic organisms.

** You are, at this very moment, inhabited by millions of prokaryotic cells: bacteria. Much of your life
and body’s processes depend on these arrangements; for example, the digestion going on in your
intestines is partially powered by bacteria that break down the food you eat. Most of the bacteria in
your body are completely harmless, but some species of bacteria can be vicious and deadly, causing
rapidly transmitted diseases such as cholera.

 Parts of Prokaryotic Cell

External Parts
o A pilus (plural: pili) is a thin, rigid fiber made of protein that protrudes from the cell surface.
The primary function of pili are to attach a bacterial cell to specific surfaces or to other cells.

**But how does the pilus know exactly what surface to attach to?
Along the length of the pilus are adhesin proteins. The word 'adhesin' should remind you of
the word 'adhesive'. These molecules aid in the attachment of the pilus and are specific to the
target surface.

** There are also shorter pili, called fimbria (plural: fimbriae), same function as pili.

o Flagella (singular: flagellum flagellum) are long, thin, whip-like appendages attached to a
bacterial cell that allow for bacterial movement (also known as motility).
 Monotrichous – Cells that have one flagellum.
 Lophotrichus – Cells that have a clump of flagella known a tuft, at one end of the cell.
 Amphitrichous – Cells that have flagella at two ends of the cell.
 Peritrichous – Cells that have flagella covering the entire cell on the surface.

o Cell wall – is present outside the plasma membrane. It provides rigidity to the cell shape and
structure and protects the cell from its environment.
 Internal Parts
o Plasma membrane (membranes are thin sheets or layers) regulates the exchange of nutrients,
water, and gases that nourish the bacterial cell.

o Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), usually in the form of a single, hoop-shaped piece, floats
around inside the cell, carries the genetic code of the cell.

o The liquid interior of the cell is called the cytoplasm. It provides a cushiony, watery home for
the DNA and other cell machinery.

o Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis

EUKARYOTIC CELL

 By definition, eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a membrane-bound nucleus, a structural feature
that is not present in bacterial or archaeal cells. In addition to the nucleus, eukaryotic cells are
characterized by numerous membrane bound organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and others.

Parts of Eukaryotic cells

 Plasma Membrane controls the passage of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of
the cell. Wastes (such as carbon dioxide and ammonia) also leave the cell by passing through the
plasma membrane.
 Cytoplasm (same function as in prokaryotic cell)
 Nucleus – contains the DNA, the genetic material that controls all the cell’s avtivities.
o Within the nucleus are one or more nucleoli, (singular: nucleolus)
 Ribosomes (same function as in prokaryotic cell)
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – set of folded membranes found throughout the cell, they serve as
channels through which materials are transported in the cell
o Smooth ER – lacks ribosomes
o Rough ER – carries ribosomes
 Golgi apparatus – flattened stack of membranes scattered throughout the cytoplasm, serve as
“packaging factories of the cell”. It collects, package and distribute the materials manufactured in the
cell such as lipids and proteins.
 Lysosomes (suicide bags/sacs) – spherical sacs or vesicles that contain digestive enzymes, it breaks
open and spills the enzyme which destroys bacteria and other microorganisms that invade the cells.
  Mitochondria – convert molecules into energy

** Mitochondrion contains its own DNA, it is capable of reproducing itself. It is also important to note
that only the mother passes on the mitochondria to the offspring. This is because the egg cell contains
mitochondria. The mitochondria in the sperm are located in the tail which does not enter the egg during
fertilization. Therefore, we can trace our ancestors through mitochondria back to our mothers,
grandmothers, great grandmothers and so on.

 Microtubules – hollow tubes that form a network within the cell, it provides support and movement to
the cell.
 Centrioles – made up of two sets of microtubules lying just outside the nuclear membrane, it aids in
cell division (becomes spindle fibers) by the causing the movement of chromosomes.
 Vacuole – water bag, storage of water, found in both animal and plant cells but are much larger
in plant cells

ADDITIONAL ORGANELLES IN PLANT CELLS

 Plastids – oval shaped structures in the cells of plants and some protists. Harvests the solar energy
and produce food in the process of photosynthesis
3 Major Types of Plastids According to Pigments
1. Chloroplasts – contains green pigment (chlorophyll)
2. Chromoplasts – colored plastids (red, yellow, orange)
3. Leucoplasts – colorless plastids (starchy foods – rice, corn, potatoes)

ACTIVITY #2
Answer the quiz in google forms. Quiz covers cell parts and functions. Do not look at the lecture or try to search
in the internet while answering the quiz.