Principle of CSU-4103

Building Science
BY Ernest TSANG

Lighting

Light and the effects of light are a major element in
the human sense of environment. Both artificial
and natural sources or light are used in buildings
and these sources can be supplied and controlled
in many ways.
1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Light is energy in form of electromagnetic
radiation. This energy is radiated by processes in
atomic structure of different materials and causes
a wide range of effects. The different forms of
electromagnetic radiation all share the same
properties of transmission although they behave
quite differently when they interact with matter.
Light is that particular electromagnetic radiation
can be detected by human sense of sight. The
range of electromagnetic radiation to which the eye
is sensitive is just a very narrow band in the total
spectrum of electromagnetic emission as Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Electromagnetic spectrum
1. Principle
of Light
The most convenient theory for the everyday
effects of light is that of electromagnetic wave
motion. This can be considered as having the
following general properties:
1. The energy resides in fluctuation of electric and
magnetic field, which travel as a transverse
wave motion.
2. These waves require no medium and can
therefore travel through a vacuum.
3. Different types of electromagnetic radiation
have different wavelengths of frequencies.
4. All electromagnetic waves have the same
velocity, which is approximately 3 × 108 m/s in
vacuum
5. The waves travel in straight lines but can be
affected by:
Reflection - reversal of direction which
occurs at a surface
Refraction - Deflection which occurs at the
boundaries of different materials
Diffraction - Diffraction which occurs at
apertures or edges of objects
1.1.1 VISIBLE RADIATION
The wavelength electromagnetic radiation that are
visible to the eye range from approximately 380 to
760 nm. If all the wavelengths of light are seen at
the same time the eye cannot distinguish the
individual wavelengths and the brain has the
sensation of white light.
White light is the effect of combining all the
wavelength of light.
White light can be separated into its component
wavelengths. One method is to use the different
refraction of light that occur in a lass prism. The
result is a spectrum of light, which is traditionally
described in the seven colours of the rainbow
although, in fact, there is a continuous range of
hues (colours whose different wavelengths cause
different sensations in the brain.
Monochromatic light is light of one particular
wavelength and colour.
If the colours of the spectrum are recombined then
white light is again produced. Varying the
proportions of the individual colours can produce
different qualities of ‘white’ light.
Fig. 2 Dispersion of white light
1.1.2 NON-VISIBLE RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
outside the range of visible wavelengths cannot,
by definition, be detected by the human eye.
However, those radiation immediately adjacent to
the visible range of wavelengths are emitted by the
Sun, along with light, and are often relevant to
lighting processes.
Infra-red (I.R.) radiation has wavelength slightly
greater than those of red light and ca be felt as
heat radiation from the sun and from other heated
bodies. Infra-red radiation is made use of in
radiant heating devices, for detecting patterns of
heat emissions, for ‘seeing’ in the dark, an for
communication links.
Ultra-violet (UV) radiation has wavelengths slightly
less than those of violet light. It is emitted by the
Sun and also other very hot objects. Ultra-violet
radiation helps to keep the body healthy but
excessive amounts can damage the skin and the
eyes.
UV radiation can be used to kill harmful bacteria in
kitchens and hospitals. Certain chemical can
convert UV energy to visible light and the effect is
made use of in fluorescent lamps.

The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
known as light is of environmental interest to
human beings because it activates their sense of
sight, or vision. Vision is a sensation caused in the
brain when light reaches the eye. The eye initially
treats light in an optical manner producing a
physical image in the same way as a camera. This
image is then interpreted by brain in a manner
which is psychological as well as physical.
2.1 THE EYE
The convex lens focuses the light from a scene to
produce an inverted image of the scene on the
retina. When in the relaxed position the lens is
focused on distant objects. To bring closer the
objects into focus the ciliary muscles increase the
curvature of the lens a process called
accommodation. The closest distance at which
objects can be focused call the near point, tends to
retreat with age as the lens become less elastic.
Fig. 3 Structure of eye
2. Nature of
vision
The amount of light entering the lens in controlled
by the iris, a coloured ring of tissue, which
automatically expands and contracts with the
amount of light present.
2.2 OPERATION OF VISION
The light energy falling on the retina causes
chemical changes in the receptors which than
send signals to the brain via the optical nerve. A
received from the eyes and the eyes are useless if
this sight centre in the brain is damaged.
The initial information interpreted by the brain
includes the brightness and colour of the image.
The stereoscopic effect of two eyes gives further
information about the size and position of objects.
The brain controls selection of many items in the
field of view and the sense of vision greatly
depends on interpretation of images learned from
previous experience.
2.3 SENSITIVITY OF VISION
The light-sensitive receptors on the retina are two
types. They respond to different wavelengths of
light in different manner and they give rise to two
type of vision.
CONE VISION
The cones are the light receptors that operate
when the eye is adapted to normal levels of light.
The spectrum appears coloured. There is a
concentration of cones on the fovea at the centre
of the retina and these are used for seeing details.
ROD VISION
The rod are the light receptors that operates when
the eye is adapted to veery low levels of light. The
rods are much more sensitive than the cones but
the spectrum appears unicoloured. The colourless
appearance of objects in moonlight or starlight is
an example of this vision. There is a concentration
of rods at the edge of the retina, which cause the
eyes to be sensitive to movement at the boundary
of the field of view.
 Measurement
of lighting

Light is one form of energy and could be measured

by the standard units of energy, but the effect of
light on the human environment also depends
upon the sensitivity of the eye. Quantities of
lighting are therefore measured by an independent
set of units.

3.1 SOLID ANGLE

As light can radiate in all three dimensions it is

necessary to measure the way in which the space
around a point can be divided into ‘solid angle’.
The standard SI Unit of solid angle is the Fig. 4 The steradian
steradian.

One steradian, 𝜔 (sr) is that solid angle at the

centre of a sphere which cuts an area on the
surface of the sphere equal to the size of the
radius squared.

Notice that the size of a solid angle does not

depend upon the radius of the sphere or upon the
shape of a solid angle. The total amount of solid
angle contained around a point at the centre of a
sphere is equal to the number of areas, each of
size radius squared, which can fit onto the total
surface area of a sphere. That is

if 𝛳 = 10º

3.2 LUMINOUS INTENSITY
To compare different light sources and measure
their ‘strength’ the concept of luminous intensity is
used.
Luminous intensity, I (candela, cd) is the power of
a light source, or illuminated surface, to emit light
in a particular direction.
The candela is one of the base units in the SI
system. One candela is defined as the luminous
intensity in a given direction of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012
Hz and of which the radiant intensity in that
direction is 1/683 W/𝜔.
The effect of one candela is still approximately the
same as the original idea of one candlepower and
the mean spherical intensity (MSI) of a 100 W light
bulb is about 100 cd.
3.3 LUMINOUS FLUX
The rate of flow of any electromagnetic energy can
be expressed in terms of power but light energy is
also measured by luminous flux.
Luminous flux, F (lumen, lm) is the rate of flow of
light energy.
By definition, one lumen is the luminous flux
emitted within one steradian by a point source of
light of light of one candle.
Fig. 5 Definition of the Lumen
In general, luminous flux and luminous intensity
are related by formula:
Where,
I = mean spherical intensity of the source (cd)
F = luminous flux emitted by the source (lm)
ω = solid angle containing the flux (sr)
Consider a point source of emitting flux in all
directions. The total solid angle around a point is
4𝛑 sr.
Since
If the intensity of the source is 1 cd, then
So, the total flux emitted by a source of one cd is
4𝜋 lm.
3.4 ILLUMINANCE
When luminous flux falls on a surface it illuminates
that surface. The effect of this illumination is
termed illuminance.
Illuminance, E (lux, lx) is the density of luminous
flux reaching a surface, where 1 lux = 1 lm/m2.
Common illuminance levels range from 50 lux for
low domestic lighting to 50,000 lux for bright
sunlight. Recommended lighting levels are
specified in term of illuminance.
If light is falling onto a surface at right angle to the
surface then the illuminance is given by the
formula:
Where,
E = illuminance on surface (lx)
F = total flux reaching surfacing (lm) Since
A = area of the surface (m2)

3.5 INVERSE SQUARE LAW OF ILLUMINATION

As the luminous flux emitted by a point source of

light travels away from the source the area over
which the flux can spread increases. Therefore,
the luminous flux per unit area (i.e. illuminance)
must decrease. This relationship is expressed by
the inverse square law.

The illumines produced by a point source of light

decrease in inverse proportion to the square of the
Fig. 6 Summary of light measurement distance from the source.

Example 1 In SI unit this law can be expressed

mathematically by the formula.
Question

A small source of light has a mean spherical

intensity of 100 cd. One quarter of the total flux Where
emitted from the source falls at right angle onto a
surface measuring 3 m by 0.7 m. Calculate: I = intensity of a point source (cd)
d = distance between source and surface (m)
(a) the total luminous flux given out by the source; E = illuminance on that surface (lx)
and
An important consequence of the inverse square
(b) the illuminance produced on the surface law is that changes in the position of light sources
produce relatively large changes in lighting effect.
Answer For example, doubling the distance between a
lamp and a surface causes the illuminance on that
(a) Given surface to decrease to one quarter of its original
I = 100 cd, 𝜔 = 4𝜋 value.
since F = I𝜔
= 100 × 4𝜋 lm
= 1256.64 lm.

(b) Total flux on the surface = F/4

= 1256.64 / 4 lm
= 314.16 lm
Area = 0.7 × 3 m2
= 2.1 m2

Fig. 7 Inverse square law of illumination

Example 2 Because illuminance is equal to luminous flux
Question divided by area the illuminance decreases b a
A lamp has a luminous intensity of 1200 cd and factor of cosine. This relationship is sometimes
acts as a point source. Calculate the illuminance termed Lambert’s Cosine Rule can be expressed
produced on surfaces: by a general formula combining the factors
affecting illumination.
(a) at 2 m from the lamp
(b) at 6 m from the lamp

Answer
Given
I = 1200 cd, d1 = 2m and d2 = 6m Where,

(a) 𝜃 = angle between direction of flux and the normal

(b)

Fig. 9 Laws of illumination

3.6 COSINE LAW OF ILLUMINATION
Example 3

When the luminous flux from a point source Question

reaches the surface of a surrounding sphere the
direction of the light is always at right angle to that
surface. However, light strikes may surface at an
inclined angle and therefore illuminates a larger
area than when it strikes at right angle. If the
luminous flux is kept constant but spread over a
larger area than the illuminance at any pint on that
area must decrease.
A lamp acts as a point source with mean spherical
intensity of 1,500 cd. It is fixed 2 m above the
centre of a circular table which has a radius of 1.5
m. Calculate the illuminance provided at the edge
of the table =, ignoring reflected light.
Answer

Using triangle laws,

d2 = 22 + 1.52
d2 = 4 + 2.25 = 6.25 m2
d = 2.5 m

cos θ = 2 / 2.5 = 0.8

Since
Fig. 8 Cosine law of illumination

3.7 REFLECTION
One method of changing the direction of light is by
the process of reflection, which may be of two
types.
Specular reflection is direct reflection in one
direction only. The angle of incidence (i) equal the
angle of reflection (r).
Diffuse reflection is reflection in which the light is
scattered in various direction.
Most practical surfaces give a mixture of free and
diffuse reflection properties. The amount of
reflection at a surface is measured by the reflection
factor or reflectance.
Reflection is a ratio of the luminous flux reflected
from a surface to the flux incident upon the
surface.
Table 1 Reflectance of building surfaces
Surface Reflection
White emulsion paint on plaster 0.8
White emulsion paint on concrete 0.6
Concrete: Light grey 0.4
Timber: birch, beech, or similar 0.3
Bricks: red fletton 0.35
Quarry tiles: red 0.1
Example 4
Question
A point source of light with a luminous intensity of
1800 cd is set 3 m above the floor and 1 m below
the ceiling which has a reflectance of 0.5.
Calculate the direct and reflected components of
the illuminance on the floor beneath the light.
Answer
Given:
(a)
I = 1800 cd, d = 3 m.
= 1800 / 32
= 200 lux
(b)
I = 1800 cd, d = 1 +1 + 3 m = 5 m.
Since,
3.8 LUMINANCE
The appearance of an object is affected by the
amount of light it emits or reflects compared to the
area of its surface. This idea of surface
‘brightness’ is termed luminance.
Luminance (L, cd/m2) is a measure of the ability of
an area light source, or reflecting surface, to
produce the sensation of brightness. There are
two types of luminance measurement:
(1) Self-luminous Sources
These include light sources and reflecting surfaces
which can be considered as a source of light. he
luminance is given by the formula
(2) Reflecting Surface
For reflecting surfaces only, the luminance can be
expressed in terms of the luminous flux emitted per
unit area.
The apostilb is an alternative unit of luminance
which is convenient for some calculations. 1
apostilb = 1/𝜋 cd/m2. This luminance of a surface
can be calculated as the product of the luminance
and the reflectance of a structure.
Example Glare is discomfort or impairment of vision caused
by an excessive range of brightness in the visual
Question field.

A sphere of diameter 0.5 m emits 2000 lm Glare can be caused by lamps, windows and
uniformly in all directions. Calculate the average painted appearing too bright in comparison with
intensity, luminance and illuminance on a surface 3 the general background. Glare can be further
m from its centre. described as disability and discomfort glare.

Answer Disability glare is the glare that lessens the ability

to see detail. It des not necessarily cause visual
Given discomfort. For example, excessive reflections
F = 2000 lm, 𝜔 = 4𝜋 sr from shiny white paper can cause disability glare
Since while reading.

Discomfort glare is the glare that lessens the ability

to see detail. An unshielded light bulb is a
common example of discomfort glare. The
amount of discomfort depends on the angle of view
and the type of location. If the direction of view is
fixed on a particular visual task, then glare caused
Projected area of a sphere, by lighting conditions will be more noticeable.

3.10 Light meter

A photometer is an instrument that measure the

luminous intensity of a light source by comparing it
with a standard source whose intensity is known.
The distance between the instrument and the two
light sources are adjusted until they each provide
Also
the same illuminance at the photometer. The
human eye is the best judge of this equal
illuminance and photometers generally use some
system which allows two screens to be compared.

A photocell light meter is an instrument that directly

measures the illuminance on a surface. The
electrical resistance of some semiconductors, such
Since as selenium, changes with exposure to light and
this property is used in an electrical circuit
connected to a galvanometer. This meter may be
calibrated in lux.

3.9 GLARE

The eye can detect a wide range of light levels but

vision is affected by the range of brightness visible
at any one time.

1. A small lamp emits a total luminous flux of 1257
lm in all directions. Calculate the luminous
intensity of this light source.
(Ans 100 cd)
2. A point source of light has an intensity of 410
cd and radiates uniformly in all direction.
(a) Calculate the quantity of flux flowing into a
hemisphere
(b) calculate the average illuminance produced on
the inside surface of this hemisphere if it has a
radius of 1.5 m
(Ans 2576 lm, 182 lux)
Tutorials
3. A uniform point source of light emits a total flux
of 2500 lm. It is suspended 800 mm above the
centre of a square table with sides of length
600 mm. Calculate the minimum and
maximum illuminance produced on the table.
(Ans 3110.9 lux 214.3 lux)
4. A photometer is positioned on a direct line
between two lamps. When each inside of the
photometer receives equal illuminance, the
distances from the photometer are 500 mm to
lamp A and 650 mm to lamp B. Lamp A is
known to have luminous intensity of 70 cd.
Calculate the luminous intensity of lamp B.
(Ans 118.3 cd)