DSU5412

Building Control, Maintenance and

Improvement

Curtain Wall and Cladding Defects

Adapted from Sr Gary Yeung’s Handout

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Outline of Contents
• Curtain Wall Defects
• Cladding Defects

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• Curtain wall building
under construction with
glass panel installed
concurrently

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Curtain Wall Defects
Thermal Movement
– Curtain walling would expand & contract freely in relation to the
main structural frame
– This differential movement involve provision of expansion joints,
horizontally & vertically, all are potential trouble spots
– In addition to grid movement, infilling panels & glazing is allowed to
float freely, as their coefficient of expansion are different from the
holding grid

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Curtain Wall Defects
Weather Resistance
Rain
– Porosity of stone/concrete, being helpful factor as rain is held in the
pores & fall on vertical surfaces of impervious material
accumulating in volume, cause leakage at base of high building
– The water running off causes damage if it penetrates open or
gasketted joints
– Causes erosion by scouring where joints are filled with mastic
compounds
– Water run down a wall in a heavy rain storm at about one litre per
min. for each 50 sq. metre of wall surface

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Curtain Wall Defects
Weather Resistance (cont’d)
Wind
– Strong winds will cause rainwater to penetrate joints where normal
rain without wind would not enter

Air Noise
– Air penetration at junction of window frames; dust infiltration & air
movements causing these faults will also increase heat losses via
cost of heating in winter (UK) or cooling in summer (HK)

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Curtain Wall Defects
Thermal Insulation
– Thermal insulation performance of curtain wall is assessed by
considering the Watts/m2 oC value of the glass panels & structural
grid
– Windows will let considerably more heat through (than concrete
wall), but the provision of double glazing could reduce the U-value
from 5.7 to 2.9
– Heat loss through the structural grid is often overlooked
– The grid consists of an internal structural member & a separate
external capping. This “thermal break” reduces the heat loss to a
minimum
– In some cases the frame forms a direct line of contact between the
internal & external faces thereby largely wasting the beneficial
effects of double glazing

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Curtain Wall Defects
Condensation
– A humid atmosphere impinging on a could surface can cause
condensation & also occur in a cavity
– If inner surfaces become moist and if these are metal, glass or some
other poreless material, the condensed water can accumulate and
be a source of decay to adjoining component, e.g. timber
– With single glazing, condensation is likely to form
– A transom section with a channel can collect this condensate
through weep holes and drain to outside
– Framing members without a “thermal break” can cause
condensation trouble in cold climates

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Time decay as a result of moisture
generated at the ceiling without
proper ventilation

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Curtain Wall Defects
Poor Glazing Detail
– A problem is created in the edge fixing of glass panel by thermal
expansion
– The resultant cracking was caused by inadequate tolerance
clearance between glass & frame, due to unequal expansion & edge
shielding of metal frame
– Edge of glass should be smooth and free from shelling, chipping or
tilting

Fire Risk
– The fire grading of external walls of buildings as required by Building
Regulations, include fire resisting protection behind the cladding,
but poor workmanship causes the fire protection to break,
especially between floors

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Curtain Wall Defects
Basic Design Requirement
– Main panels to keep out wind/rain, allowance for movement due to
thermal changes alteration in moisture content
– All joints for curtain walling should:-
• Resist all loads with safety and without distortion
• Prevent wind/rain from entering the building
• Make allowance for moisture/thermal movement
• Maintain the insulation properties of wall
• Permit easy assembly of components
• Provide means of maintenance
• Those requiring a mastic seal on gasket
• Those relying for weather tightness on cavities or mechanical
stops

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Curtain Wall Defects
Water Exclusion
– Most windows exclude rainwater by means of:
• Sealant
• Drainage geometry and/or
• Mechanical seals
– Sealants are fluid-applied materials (putties, mastics etc.) or
adhesive strips
– Drainage geometry is the overlapping & sloping of various elements,
to direct/channel water to outside
– Mechanical seals – commonly referred to as gaskets – consist of
push-fit preformed strips of synthetic rubber, although true gaskets
should be compressed

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Curtain Wall Defects
Curtain-walling
Stick-system curtain walling comprises a rectilinear grid of transoms &
mullions. Glass panes or double-glazing units are clamped within each
rectangle of the grid

Typical curtain
walling transom

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Curtain Wall Defects
Curtain Walling
– To reduce infiltration, system employ ‘pressure equalization’ by
incorporating apertures in horizontal pressure plate & cap
– These apertures effectively allow air to by-pass the outer seal; the
glazing chamber is approximately the same pressure as external air
– Any water passing the outer seal is expected to drain out again via
weep holes
– Inner seal is an air seal, without any gaps
– Loss of pressure-equalization (inner and outer) will discourage
water from draining out from weepholes, thereby compounding the
problem
– If water gets into inner seal, a draught will draw it past that seal into
the building

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Typical mullion/transom
junction, in stick-system
curtain walling

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Curtain Wall Defects
Some Possible Problems:
– Some systems make no proper provision for directing & containing
internal drainage, but rely on water merely percolating down
through the grid, may be adequate under sheltered conditions but
are unsuitable for high buildings & exposed sites
– Grid spaces are infilled by opaque panels. If the inner faces of these
panels are not smooth & unjointed, the air seal may be ineffective
– Most systems are superficially similar so that sub-contractor may
ignore vital differences, e.g. as special components at mullion &
transom junctions, for various systems
– If working drawings do not show all details, e.g. weep holes, these
may be omitted when extrusions are being drilled/slotted. Fixing
gangs may install components upside down

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Curtain Wall Defects
Windows
– ‘Window’ refers here to a glazing system set into a
prefabricated frame
– Usually with snap-on beads to secure the glass
– Fig (a) shows section of external beads
– The external seal may be a gasket/butyl mastic strip
– Some rainwater will seep past the seal, or via the
joints in the beads
– The internal upstand flange of frame is high, so
water should drain back to outside, under the bead
– Fig (b) shows the same frame section reversed, to
place the beads on interior face
– Arrangement looks neater & offers improved
security, but potentially more vulnerable to leakage
(for no high flange on inside)
– Fig (c) shows a more efficient design (a deep
internal trough to catch water & direct it to weep
holes)

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Curtain Wall Defects
Windows – Leakage may occur:
– Via any apertures/imperfections in the internal flange
e.g. corner joints, mitres, loose fixings
– External air blowing past the inner seal, if both seals have gaps
which allow a through-draught
– By leaking downwards, through the frame, via fixing holes
– By filling the glazing chamber to inner seal level, if wind pressure is
high/prolonged
– The pressure must be greater than internal flange height in order
for leakage to happen

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Curtain Wall Defects
Sloping Glazing Figure 1:
– Many upward-facing glazing have been Standard curtain
assembled from standard curtain-walling walling transom
used in sloping
extrusions
– Fig 1, a standard transom is unsuitable for sloping
purpose
– Water is collected at uphill of cap & surcharge
the external seal and water which enters the Figure 2:
Purpose
glazing chamber cannot drain out via the - made transom
pressure plate sloping glazing
– Properly designed systems (Fig 2) use extrusions
with channels to collect water which passes the
outer seal
– Overlap corresponding channels in the mullions
so that water should flow from transom to
mullion, and down to ground below
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Curtain Wall Defects
Sloping Glazing
– Fig 3 shows a modern transom in sloping glazing
which employs sealant (technically correct)
– Silicone is applied between each double-glazed
unit & central aluminum fin, to form twin seals
– Each seal has a rectangular cross-section against
a foam backing strip & accommodate thermal
movement
– The seals are flush with glass & so there are no Figure 3
water traps
– The transom provides a 2nd line of defense to
drain leakage & condensation to mullions

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Curtain Wall Defects
Joints in Horizontal Flashing
– Glazed screens may include wide aluminum flashings, e.g. copings
or sills
– Joints in these flashings are susceptible to leaks because the
upward-facing surfaces usually have shallow crossfalls
– The metal undergoes significant thermal movement & a joint may
be under a continuous film of water
– The commonest type of joint (Fig 4), backed by a sleeve or butt-
strap secured by screws/rivets
– There are seals between flashing & butt strap,
on either side of joint

Figure 4: Butt – strapped joint in

metal coping

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Curtain Wall Defects
Joints in Horizontal Flashing – problems may arise:
– If the butt strap is a close fit inside the flashing & the seal is a thin
film of silicone, thermal movement may rupture the seal
– If the fixings are self-tapping screws, these may work loose
– If the fixer positions & fixings between the two seals, the joint can
leak via fixing holes. The fixings have sealing washers above flashing
but not where they pass through the holes in butt strap
– A properly designed joint should incorporate spaces to maintain a
predetermined thickness of sealant, which can deform to
accommodate movements (Fig 5)

Figure 5

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Curtain Wall Defects
Sill Junctions
– Performance of a glazed screen can be spoiled by inappropriate
details at its sill
– Fig 6 (a) shows a typical sill detail which employs internal drainage
via its mullions
– Fig 6 (b) illustrates a very common error
– The sill is omitted & the lowest transom cap is sealed directly to
brickwork
– The internal drainage discharges behind the sealant
– Also discharge behind the sill dpc, resulting in damp patches on
inside of wall

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Figure 6: Right & wrong details at sills of mullion
– drained curtain walling systems
Figure 6(a) Figure 6(b)

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Curtain Wall Defects
Suggestions for Improving Design & Construction:
– Identify the design concept for each component to exclude water.
If any seals are to be 100% waterproof, any evidence to back this
assumption?
– Check that design details are complete & define all
seals/drainage paths. Factory-applied items, e.g. frame joint seals
should be included
– Check that all materials are specified e.g. sealants should be
described by name/type rather than just as ‘mastic’
– Assess durability, estimate the possible effects of thermal
movements & sealant deterioration. Can design tolerate minor
efficiencies in the seals?
– Assess buildability, estimate the possible effects of misalignments
& sealant application. Can design tolerate minor imperfections?

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Curtain Wall Defects
Suggestions for Improving Design & Construction (Cont’d):
– Examine the perimeter details, relationship between glazing system
& adjacent building elements at head, jambs & sill. Are there logical
junctions to exclude water?
– Carefully monitor tests, check to include all significant
features/junctions
– Communicate information, ensure subcontractor’s supervisor &
main contractor’s site agent are issued with drawings/instructions
which encompass all components/materials
– A proper quality control/assurance system

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Curtain Wall Defects
Remedial Work
– Remedy be based on logical/scientific principles
– Should be excluding water by adding external deflectors or new
external seals
– All new seals be properly designed & not be short-term mastic
bodges
– Designed by providing internal drainage, achieved by drilling weep
holes, etc.
– Designed by improving air seals, to improve performance of most
‘drained’ systems
– Any redesign be properly documented with drawings & specification

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Curtain Wall Defects
Consider Other Common Problems:

- Sound insulation - Spandrel panel

- Aluminium frame defects
- Aluminium panel defects
- Aluminium panel subframe
defect rust
- Construction debris
- Bimetallic action leakage
- Weather sealant problems
- Structural sealant problems
- Mullion/transome damage
- Vapour barrier
- Mildew/mould
- Stains by birds’ dropping etc.
- Spare/stock keeping
- Glass spontaneous breakage
- Glass coating
damage/cleaning
- Glass manufacturing defects

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Curtain Wall Defects
Signs of Distress or Deterioration:
– Cracked, loose, broken or missing glass panels
– Bulging, bowing, separation, delamination, rotation, displacement
of panels
– Staining – rust/corrosion, chemical attack, water penetration
– Fixings – damaged and missing parts, corrosion, looseness, other
defects
– Sealant – extrusion between joints and panels, wrinkle, split,
missing, change in colour and other signs of deterioration
– Hardening, cracking gaskets
– Malfunctioning of locking devices and bar hinges of openable
windows
– Water seepage or moisture behind curtain wall, window or window
wall

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• Damage of glass panel by
typhoon

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Curtain Wall Defects
Some Storage Guides:
– Support cases on both sides when stored vertically
– After unpacking, place interleaving protection between panel
– Keep glass and interleaving dry (wet interleaving can stain glass) by
storing inside; temperatures be above dewpoint, or, if outside
storage is necessary, cover the glass & interleaving with
tarpaulins/plastic and inspect periodically
– Avoid sealing cases with plastic
– Air circulation inhibits corrosion
– The tarpaulins/plastic should be opaque to sunlight
– Avoid exposing stored glass to direct sunlight

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Curtain Wall Defects
Some Handling Guides:
– Stack individual panel on edge & lean them against sturdy uprights
at 5o – 7o from vertical
– Cushion the bottom edges with soft, firm pads free of dirt, grit, glass
chips
– Avoid rotating or ‘cartwheeling’ window insulating glass units over
their corners – may cause chipping
– Instead, use a turning device e.g. a rolling block if units must be
rotated

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Curtain Wall Defects
Some Installation Guides:
– Schedule glass deliveries to coincide with glazing schedules
– Unpack the glass from cases per instruction
– Never move partially unpacked cases or ‘end-pick’ pane;
– Check glass surfaces/edges for damage before glazing
– Do not install glass with large edge chips
– Never slide one panel over another

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Curtain Wall Defects
Some Installation Guides (cont’d):
– Prevent contact of the glass with markings – typically flags, festoons
or tape to identify openings to be glazed
– Never mark the glass with an “X” or other identify symbol
– Protect glass with screens of plywood or plastic when welding,
cutting, sandblasting, fire proofing, etc.
– Begin glazing in concrete openings only after any surface treatments
e.g. sandblasting, grouting & waterproofing have been completed
– Insist that workers handling glass wear gloves, safety shoes,
hardhats & glazing gauntlets

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Curtain Wall Defects
Some Cleaning Guides:
– Immediately after installation, remove grease & excess glazing
materials by cleaning with commercial solvents, e.g. xylene,
toluene, mineral spirits or naptha, then rinse with water
– Never use fluoride salts, hydrogen-fluoride alkaline, acid or abrasive
components to wash glass or nearby surfaces
– Avoid applying too much solvent to glazing or seals of insulating
units
– After cleaning with a solvent, wash glass frequently using soft,
clean, grit-free cloths and a mild soap, detergent or slightly acidic
solution
– Rinse immediately with clear water, remove excess water with a
clean squeegee

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Curtain Wall Defects
Some Cleaning Guides (cont’d):
– Clean coated glass more frequently than uncoated glass;
fingerprints, grease stains, smears, dirt, scum, etc. are more
noticeable on them
– Avoid use of abrasive cleaners on all glass (especially on glasses
coated on exterior, e.g. Solarcool coated glass)
– Remove stains caused by weathering steels by cleaning regularly
during weathering period per instruction
– Remove rundown from concrete, stucco, etc. regularly

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Curtain Wall Defects
Useful Glass Information:
– Annealed: glass is cooled slowly as it exits the float line, minimizing
residual internal stresses
– Heat-strengthened glass:
• About twice as strong as annealed glass
• Made by cutting annealed glass to size
• Heating to near its softening point
• Then cooling faster than normal to place the outside
surfaces/edges in compression & interior in tension
• Industry standards specify a surface compression of (24.1 to
69.0 MPa) for heat-strengthened glass

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Curtain Wall Defects
Useful Glass Information (cont’d):
– Tempered glass:
• Three to five times stronger than annealed glass
• Made by cutting annealed glass to size
• Heating to near its softening point and then quenching with air
more quickly than when producing heat-strengthened glass
• Minimum surface compression is (69 MPa), edge compression
(66.9 MPa)
– Laminated glass: consists of two or more layers of glass sandwiching
an interlayer of vinyl to form a single, unified construction

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Curtain Wall Defects
Design Consideration:
– Thermal Stress – Heat sources e.g. the sun, heating registers &
radiant heaters can create differences in temperature between the
centre & edges of glass. The resulting stresses can increase the risks
of breakage & can be minimised by considering:
• Building Orientation: Thermal stresses are typically lower for
glass facing between N60W and N45E; and
• Sizes/shapes: large pane with large edge areas are more
susceptible to solar-induced breakage than smaller pane with
smaller edge areas. Avoid irregular or pattern-cut shapes

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Curtain Wall Defects
Design Consideration (cont’d):
– Indoor shading: avoid unventilated indoor shading devices which
trap a layer of solar-heated air between the shading & glass. Allow
at least a 25mm vent at the head/sill of blinds & drapes, and
150mm between shading & glass. Dark blind/drape colours are
better than light colour
– Heating registers: locate registers on the room side of drapperies,
to specify heat-strengthened glass. Avoid thermal shock during
initial startup of HVAC system
– Outdoor shading: balconies, awnings, solar screens, louvers, tress &
shrubbery made partially shade glass, introducing the stresses of
irregular heating. Double-diagonal shading is most severe

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Cladding Defects

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 Shortening of columns
Creeping and elastic deformation

Oscillation and deflection

Earthquake and wind loads
Figure 2.1 Forces
on cladding panels
caused by Differential settlement Foundation
movement settlement or lengthening of
columns exposed to temperature
and moisture variations

Local deflection
Unequal loading on slabs and
beams

Arrows indicate forces on the panels

caused by the movements

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There is, therefore, a need to provide tolerance for movements, where necessary,
following careful consideration of amounts and directions of movements.

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Cause Effect Duration, Frequency Examples of materials of components Significance for design
affected

1. Temperature Expansion and Intermittent, diurnal, All. Where restrained, distortion or Extent of movement is influenced by
changes contraction seasonal damage may occur. Distortion may also thermal coefficient, exposure, color,
result from temperature gradients or from thermal capacity, insulation provided
non-homogeneity by backing

2. Moisture content
changes:

(a) Initial moisture Irreversible expansion Relatively short term Brick and other ceramic products Depends on age of product; most
absorption owing to absorption of movement occurs within first 3
moisture after months of product’s life
manufacture

(b) Initial moisture Irreversible contraction Relatively short term Mortar, concrete, sandlime bricks May require measures to control or
release distribute cracking

(c) Alternate Expansion and Periodic, e.g. seasonal Most porous building materials, including Generally less significant for cladding
absorption and contraction cement based and wood or wood-based than are thermal movements but
release of moisture products. Restraints, humidity gradients wood experiences large moisture-
in service or non-homogeneity may produce induced movements across the grain
distortion. Laminates of dissimilar
materials may bow, particularly if their
construction is asymmetrical

3. Loading on
structure:

(a) Elastic Normally insignificant Continuous or Suspended floor and roof slabs, beams, Needs consideration in relation to
deformation under in vertical members intermittent under live edge beams or spandrels, of all materials fixings and bearings for cladding and
service loads but horizontal loads; long term under (whether they support or ‘contain’ the to possible compression of
members may deflect dead loads cladding) ‘contained’ cladding: deflections in
prestressed concrete members may
be relatively large

(b) Creep Contraction of vertical Long term Reinforced and prestressed concrete Needs consideration as above. May
and deflection of components as above also be significant where load-
horizontal members bearing concrete walls or columns
have cladding such as mosaic or
other tiling directly bonded 44
Cause Effect Duration, Frequency Examples of materials of components Significance for design
affected

4. Wind loading Deflection Intermittent Lightweight cladding, including fixed and Extent of deflection depends on exposure
on cladding opening glazing; sheet siding for a given stiffness. Deflection is
commonly designed not to exceed 1/240
of the span in order to avoid damage to
sealants or glazing

5. Chemical
changes:

(a) Corrosion Expansion Continuous Iron and other ferrous metals Depends on protection or on corrosion
resistance of material; electrolytic
corrosion may require consideration.
Corroding fixings can seriously disrupt
cladding

(b) Sulphate Expansion Continuous Portland cement based products in Significant for cladding where the
attack construction where soluble sulphate salts construction affected has cladding such
(e.g. from high-sulphate bricks) and as mosaic or other tiling or rendering,
persistent dampness present bonded directly to it.

(c) Carbonation Contraction Continuous Porous Portland cement products, such Not very significant unless distortion
as concrete, lightweight concrete, might result - for example, asbestos
asbestos-cement cement sheets painted on one faceonly

6. Vibration (from Generation of noise,
traffic, machinery, possible loosening of
wind forces) fixings, disturbance
of glazing seals
- Lightweight cladding, sheet siding
Noise discomfort to occupants; possible
rain penetration past seals by ‘pumping’
action of glazing or spandrel panels.
Natural frequency of cladding or panels
may influence response

7. Physical
changes:

(a) Loss of Contraction, loss of Short or long term Some sealants, some plastics Contributes to age-hardening of some
volatiles plasticity depending on sealants. May lead to embrittlement and
materials, exposure distortion of some plastics

(b) Ice or Expansion and Dependent on weather Porous natural stones, very exposed Damage usually confined to spalling and
crystalline salt possibly disruption in conditions brickwork erosion of surfaces
formation some building 45
materials
Figure 2.3 Typical examples of improperly installed fixing in cladding system
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 MAF° (= Movement
Accommodation Factor)

No suitable sealants

Minimum sealant width (mm)

* Where given in product literature as, for example, 15% use MAF = 30%
Figure 2.4 Minimum joint width related to allowable movement and suitable type of sealant (Source: Large Concrete
Panel External Walls: Re-sealing Butt Joints, Defect Action Sheet DAS 97, Building Research Establishment, UK, March
1987)

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 Sealant under tension

Misaligned
panel

Compressed sealant

Perfect sealant

Figure 2.5 Symptoms of sealant-filled joint failures

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Cladding Defects
Sealant Failures
Adhesive Failure
- Pulling away of curved sealant bead from joint interface
- Results from loss of adhesion of sealant
- Caused by:
- Poor preparation of joint interfaces prior to application of sealant e.g. some
sealants require priming, especially to porous surfaces
- Failure to clean joint interfaces, thus preventing a good bonding
- Surface is damp at time of application
- Sealant in the joint is expected to perform within known tolerances caused by
expansion/contraction. If joint movement is obstructed (too less allowances) in
any way, the sealant will be affected
- Some sealants take times to reach full flexibility e.g. polysulphides takes 4 days
to cure completely. Any irregular movement taken place during that time may
cause rupturing of sealant
- Insufficient depth of sealant result in straining of sealant, even when design
depth was adequate if workmanship was faulty
- Incompatibility of subsequent surface coating being applied over the sealant,
resulting in breakdown of sealant

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Figure 2.6 Adhesive failure
indicated by the pulling away
of the sealant bead from the
joint interfaces

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Cladding Defects
Cohesive Failure
- It occurs when sealant itself shows signs of splitting as opposed to adhesive
failure
- Caused by following reasons:
• When thermal movement is excessive, joint may widen beyond the
capacity of sealant to accommodate the movement and failure occurs
• High thermal movement occurring prior to complete curing of sealant
e.g. the vulnerability of polysulphide, silicone sealants to early
movements can result in cohesive failure
• Inadequate depth at centre of material arising from poor application
• Poor quality sealants being used at the expense of strength/durability,
e.g. butyl/bitumen sealants have limited tolerances/MAF
• Incorrect use of bond breakers at reat of joint due to poor design or
defective installation
• Entrapment of air behind sealant can lead to subsequent expansion of
air that fracture the material
• Poor mixing of sealant components
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Figure 2.7 Cohesion failure
indicated by the sealant itself
showing signs of splitting

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Cladding Defects
Workmanship Problems
- Poor workmanship is the most contentious area
- Disregard instructions issued
- Common causes include:
• Faculty installation because of unskilled/incompetent workers,
without accuracy/good workmanship
• Omission of essential fixings, especially at critical locations
(inadequate design or missed accidentally)
• Misuse of fixings, over-tightening, hammering into undersized
holes & forcibly bending the fixings to overcome dimensional
discrepancies on site
• Site alteration without due consideration for consequences e.g.
making changes to mortices in stone cladding panels causing
direct damage to cladding

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Cladding Defects
Workmanship Problems (Cont’d)
– Other common causes include:
• Excessive stress can be caused to supporting nibs when the
heavier cladding units of stone & precast concrete have
inadequate bearing on them
• Supporting features, compression joints/fixings have not been
designed/placed to allow for likely inaccuracies over the whole
building, especially in differential movement
• Reinforcement is not taken out far enough into the projecting
nibs, leading to shear failures

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 Weight of the Weight of the
cladding panel cladding panel

Reinforcement of
the cladding panel

Shear failure likely Shear failure likely to

to occur here occur at this area

Figure 2.8
Shear failures of
supporting nib of
large concrete
panels

a. Insufficient bearing b. Reinforcement not taken out far

for cladding panel enough into projecting nib 55
The End
• For questions, please email to johnyip@thei.edu.hk

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End

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