UNIVERSITY OF JUBA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 531 HIGHWAY & AIRPORT DESIGN

LECTURE NOTES 1:

Introduction & Highway Planning

By

Mr. Chol Deng

September 2023
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Class Information

1) Class: CE531 Highway and Airport Design

2) Date: Friday

3) Time: 8:00 a.m. – 10:00 a.m.

4) Location: Ipdss-2

5) Instructor:

- Name: Chol Deng, BSc (Hon), MSc, MPhil.

- e-mail: choldavidd@gmail.com
- Tel: 0925790065

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 1.2. Syllabus

Course Description/ Content/Outline

1) Introduction

2) Highway Planning,

3) Surveys,

4) Location and Geometric Design,

5) Pavement Design and Construction

6) Soil Stabilization for Pavements

7) Bituminous Materials and admixtures

8) Earth work calculations in Highway design

9) Highway Drainage

10) Highway Maintenance

11) Characteristic related to Airports and Delay

12) Airport Planning, Configuration, and Design

Experiments:

1) Medium and Heavy compaction

2) CBR test

3) LOS Angles test,

4) Marshal Tests

5) Bituminous tests

6) Dynamics cone penetration test

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 1.3. Textbook/References

1) AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. Washington D.C.: American

Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials, 1993.

2) South Sudan Ministry of Transport, Roads and Bridges (MTRB). “Standard Technical
Specifications” 2006

Note: Each Chapter has its own References

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 1.4. Final Grade Determination

1) Attendance (5%)
2) HomeWorks (5%)
3) Mid-term exam (20%)
4) Final exam (70%)

Notes:
i. Attendance must be more than 50% in order to attend exams.
ii. There shall be two individual homework, and 1 group Assignment. Each homework
is typically due in 2 weeks; late homework will be discounted at 10% per day
following the due day.
iii. Exams will be closed book.

1.5. Course Objectives

On successful completion of the Course, the students shall be able to understand the following:
i. Basic Concept about Highway Engineering including Understanding of how Highways are

functionally classified

ii. To understand the principles factors considered in a typical highway design

iii. Perform geometric design for the Highway& Basic concept of Pavement design

iv. To understand Types of pavements & Materials required for highway construction.

v. To understand Construction procedure for different type of pavements.

vi. To understand maintenance procedure for different type of pavements.

vii. In Airport Engineering, students will get knowledge of Airport Planning, Layout and

Runway and Taxiway components.

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 2. HIGHWAY PLANNING

2.1. Introduction

Planning is a prerequisite for any Engineering activity or Project; this is particularly true for the
Development of a Highway Network or System in a Country.
Highway Design is only one element in the overall Highway development process. Historically,
Detailed Design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding phases of Planning and
Project Development with the subsequent phases of Right-of-Way acquisition, Construction, and
Maintenance. It is during the first three Stages, Planning, Project Development, and Design, that
Designers and Communities, working together, can have the greatest impact on the Final Design
features of the Project. In fact, the flexibility available for Highway Design during the Detailed
Design phase is limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier Stages of Planning and
Project Development.

2.2. The Stages of Highway Development

Although the names may vary by State, the five basic stages in the highway development process
are: Planning, project development (Preliminary Design), Final Design, Right of Way, and
construction. After construction is completed, ongoing operation and maintenance activities
continue throughout the life of the facility.

Fig.1.1: Process of Highway Planning

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  Planning

The initial definition of the need for any Highway or Bridge improvement Project takes place
during the Planning Stage. This problem definition occurs at the State, Regional, or Local Level,
depending on the scale of the proposed improvement.

This is the key time to get the public involved and provide input into the decision-making process.
The problems identified usually fall into one or more of the following four categories:
i. The existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement (structure repair).
ii. Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access to
transportation and mobility need to be increased (capacity).
iii. The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident problems that can
only be resolved through physical, geometric changes (safety).
iv. Developmental pressures along the route make a reexamination of the number, location,
and physical design of access points necessary (access).

 Factors to Consider During Planning

It is important to look ahead during the planning stage and consider the potential impact that a
proposed facility or improvement may have while the project is still in the conceptual phase.
During planning, key decisions are made that will affect and limit the design options in
subsequent phases.

Fig. 1.2: Factors to consider in planning.

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  Project Development

After a Project has been planned and programmed for implementation, it moves into the project
development phase. At this stage, the environmental analysis intensifies. The level of
environmental review varies widely, depending on the scale and impact of the project. It can range
from a multiyear effort to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (a comprehensive document
that analyzes the potential impact of proposed alternatives) to a modest environmental review
completed in a matter of weeks. Regardless of the level of detail or duration, the product of the
project development process generally includes a description of the location and major design
features of the recommended project that is to be further designed and constructed, while
continually trying to avoid, minimize, and mitigate environmental impact.

 Final Design
After a preferred alternative has been selected and the Project description agreed upon as stated in
the Environmental Document, a project can move into the final Design Stage. The product of this
stage is a complete set of plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&Es) of required quantities of
materials ready for the solicitation of construction bids and subsequent construction. Depending on
the scale and complexity of the Project, the Final Design process may take from a few months to
several years.

The following paragraphs discuss some important considerations of design, including:

- Developing a Concept; and
- Detailing the Design.

 Developing a Concept

A design concept gives the project a focus and helps to move it toward a specific direction. There
are many elements in a highway, and each involves a number of separate but interrelated design
decisions. Integrating all these elements to achieve a common goal or concept helps the designer in
making design decisions. Some of the many elements of highway design are
a) Number and width of travel lanes, median type and width, and shoulders
b) Traffic barriers
c) Overpasses/bridges
d) Horizontal and vertical alignment and affiliated landscape.

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  Detailing the Design

Particularly during the final design phase, it is the details associated with the project that are
important. Employing a multidisciplinary design team ensures that important design details are
considered and those they are compatible with community values. Often it is the details of the
project that are most recognizable to the public. A multidisciplinary design team can produce an
aesthetic and functional product when the members work together and are flexible in applying
guidelines.

 Right-of-Way, Construction and Maintenance

Once the Final Designs have been prepared and needed Right-of-Way is purchased, construction
bid packages are made available, a contractor is selected, and construction is initiated. During the
Right-of-Way acquisition and Construction Stages, minor adjustments in the design may be
necessary; therefore, there should be continuous involvement of the design team throughout these
stages. Construction may be simple or complex and may require a few months to several years.
Once construction has been completed, the facility is ready to begin its normal sequence of
operations and maintenance.

Even after the completion of Construction, the character of a Road can be changed by
inappropriate maintenance actions. For example, the replacement of sections of guardrail damaged
or destroyed in crashes commonly utilizes whatever spare guardrail sections may be available to
the local Highway maintenance personnel at the time.

 Stages of Highway Development

Summaries of the five basic stages in highway planning and development.

Stages Description of Activity

Planning Identification of transportation needs and program project to be built
Within financial constraints.
Project Development The transportation project is more clearly defined. Alternative locations
and design features are developed, and an alternative is selected.
Design The design team develops detailed design and specification.
Right-of-Way Land needed for the project is acquire
Construction Selection of contractor, who then builds the project.

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 2.3. The Objectives of Highway Planning

The following are the Objectives of Highway Planning:

1) Planning a Highway Network for safe, efficient and fast movement of people and goods.
2) Keeping the overall cost of construction and maintenance of the roads in the network to a
minimum.
3) Planning for future development and anticipated traffic needs for a specific design period.
4) Planning to forecast for the next several years in order to fix period for maintenance,
renewal and widening as well.
5) Phasing road development programmes from considerations of utility and importance
as also of financial resources.
6) Evolving a financing system compatible with the cost and benefits.

2.4. Requirement to fulfil the Objectives

To fulfill the Objectives, the following principles have to be borne in mind:

a. The proposed road links should be a part of the planned road network for the state/nation.
b. The importance of the road shall be based on the traffic demand, and hence its type should
fall under the standard classification.
c. The maintenance needs of the roads should receive prompt attention by setting aside funds
for this purpose.
d. Statutory provisions for traffic regulation should be in place.

2.5. Classification of Roads

2.5.1. The classification based on speed and accessibility

The roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed and accessibility is
the most generic one. Note that as the accessibility of road increases, the speed reduces. (See Fig.
1.2). Accordingly, the Roads can be classified as follows in the order of increased accessibility and
reduced speeds.

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 a) Freeways:
Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways are four lanes, two lanes each
direction, but many freeways widen to incorporate more lanes as they enter urban areas. Access is
controlled through the use of interchanges, and the type of interchange depends upon the kind of
intersecting road way (rural roads, another freeway etc.)

b) Expressways:
They are superior type of highways and are designed for high speeds (120 km/hr is common), high
traffic volume and safety. They are generally provided with grade separations at intersections.
Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on expressways.

c) Highways:
They represent the superior type of roads in the country. Highways are of two types - rural
highways and urban highways. Rural highways are those passing through rural areas (villages) and
urban highways are those passing through large cities and towns, i.e. urban areas.
d) Arterials:
It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through traffic usually on a continuous
route. They are generally divided highways with fully or partially controlled access. Parking,
loading and unloading activities are usually restricted and regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to
cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.

e) Local Streets:
A Local Street is the one which is primarily intended for access to residence, business or abutting
property. It does not normally carry large volume of traffic and also it allows unrestricted parking
and pedestrian movements.

f) Collectors Streets:
These are Streets intended for collecting and distributing traffic to and from local streets and also
for providing access to arterial streets. Normally full access is provided on these streets. There are
few parking restrictions except during peak hours.

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 Fig.1.2: Speed vs Accessibility

2.5.2. Other Criteria

Roads can be classified based on some other criteria. They are given in detail below.
A. Based on usage
This classification is based on whether the road can be used during different seasons of the year.
 All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all weathers, except at
major river crossings where interruption of tra c is permissible up to a certain extent
are called all weather roads.

 Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather are called
fair weather roads.

B. Based on carriage way

This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.
 Paved roads with hard surface: If they are provided with a hard pavement course, such
roads are called paved roads.(eg: stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), Bituminous
macadam (BM), concrete roads)

 Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course of at least a WBM layer,
they are called unpaved roads. Thus earth and gravel roads come under this category.

C. Based on pavement surface

Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced and unsurfaced
roads.

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  Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous or cement
concreting surface are called surfaced roads.

 Unsurfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a bituminous or
cement concreting surface are called unsurfaced roads.

D. Other criteria
Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load transported through
that road, or location and function of that road.
 Traffic volume: Based on the traffic volume, they are classified as heavy, medium and
light traffic roads. These terms are relative and so the limits under each class may be
expressed as vehicles per day.

 Load transported: Based on the load carried by these roads, they can be classified as class
I, class II, etc. or class A, class B etc. and the limits may be expressed as tonnes per day.
 Location and function: The classification based on location and function should be a more
acceptable classification since they may be defined clearly.

2.5.3. Urban roads classification based on their function and location:

1) Expressways— for movement of heavy volume of traffic.
2) Arterial streets—for connecting the central area to expressways.
3) Sub-arterial streets—similar to arterial roads but with less spacing.
4) Collector streets—for collection and distribution of traffic through local streets in
residential areas.
5) Local streets—to access private property like residences, shops and industries. Traffic
originates here or ends here.

2.5.3.1. Urban Road Patterns:

Although road patterns in a country are historically inherited, later additions can be planned
bearing in mind the requirements of the day.
Road patterns are of great use in urban highway planning. The choice of a road pattern
depends upon the extent of land use or the distribution of residential, industrial and business
areas in a city, the nature of the terrain, and the planner’s preferences.

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The main patterns in use in urban areas:
i. Grid Iron Pattern:
This is also known as rectangular or block pattern and is perhaps the simplest (Fig. 1.3). The
Romans preferred it, as have the Americans who adopted it in many of their cities. This is easy to
set out in straight lines and rectangular co-ordinates and is suitable for flat terrain.

Fig. 1.3 Road Pattern-Grid Iron Type

The disadvantages of this pattern are monotonously long streets and the inconvenience in traffic
operation. There are also certain advantages such as bypassing any road with traffic congestion and
the convenience of imposing one-way traffic, if necessary, making alternate streets with one- way
traffic in opposite directions.

ii. Radial Pattern:

In this pattern, roads emanate from a central focal area, which may be a business centre or an
important public building. In order to ease the congestion in the focal area, ring roads are provided;
there can be several such roads—inner, intermediate and outer—depending on the requirements of
the traffic.
The shape of a ring road may be round, square, or elongated. Based on this, the pattern may be star
and grid, or star and circular. (Fig. 1.4). The star and circular pattern, also known as the radial and
circular pattern, has been adopted in certain cases, although in a limited way.

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 a) b)
Fig. 1.4: Road Pattern: a) Star and circular type; b) Star and grid type

iii. Hexagonal Pattern:

The basic figure of the road network in this case is a hexagon; each hexagon has at least one side
common with an adjacent pattern, as shown in Fig. 1.5. The hexagonal pattern can be modified by
dividing the hexagon into six triangle units by link roads; this facilitates travel from one place to
any other place in the area in the minimum possible time, compared to any other pattern. This, in
fact, is known as a ‘minimum travel pattern’ and was used in certain cities to great advantage.

Fig. 1.5: Road Pattern-Hexagonal type

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 2.5.4. South Sudan Roads Classification

Right
S/No Road Classification Road Description Prefix
Part A – Trunk Roads
International Trunk Roads linking centres of
1 International Roads International importance and crossing N
International Boundaries
National trunk Roads linking nationally
2 Interstate Roads important Centres A

Part B – State Roads

Primary Roads linking State important centres
3 Primary Roads (State)to each other B
Secondary Roads linking County important
Secondary Roads
centres to each other, to more important centres C
(County)
4 or to higher class Roads
5 Feeder Roads (Local) Tertiary Roads linking minor centres D
6 Part C – Urban Roads Roads within Urban Centers
7 Urban Arterials Major Urban Roads UA
8 Urban Collectors Access to Major Urban Roads UC
9 Urban local roads Access Providing Linkage UL

2.6. Highway Planning Studies:

Highway Planning involves the Assessment of the length of Road required for a given area, which
may be a City, District, State or a Country; furthermore, it includes the preparation of a Master
Plan for the area taking into consideration Future needs, and phasing the programme in annual or
five-year plans, based on the priorities and utility.

For assessing the required road length for the area, field studies are to be carried out to collect the
necessary data.

These are:
(i) Economic Studies:
Details of the existing facilities, their utility, distribution of the existing population in the area,
population growth trends, existing products in the agricultural and industrial sectors, future trends
of development in these sectors, existing communication and education facilities, and the per
capita income are to be collected.

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(ii) Road Use Studies:
Details of the existing road facilities, traffic volume in vehicles per day, traffic flow patterns,
classes of traffic such as passenger cars, busses and trucks, loads carried, average speeds,
anticipated future trends of traffic growth, and other traffic-related studies are to be conducted.
(iii) Engineering Studies:
These include study of the topography, soil, road life and special problems, if any, relating to
construction, drainage and maintenance.

(iv) Financial Studies:

Various financial aspects such as the sources of funding, estimated revenue from taxes on vehicles,
toll tax, and indirect benefits of raising the living standards of the people due to the proposed road
network are considered.

A systematic study of all these data will help the planner in the preparation of a Master Plan to
serve the needs of the area for a specified design period of say, 20 to 25 years.

These studies also help in fixing priorities of various routes or sectors based on their utility per unit
length. Based on the priorities and the maximum utility per unit length, the entire development
plan for the design period will be phased in 5-year intervals, depending upon the availability of
financial resources. This is known as phasing of the Master Plan for road development.

For calculating the optimum road length, a system called saturation system or maximum utility
system is used.
This system is based on the principle of qualifying the utility of a proposed road network based on
the villages and towns of different populations it serves, as also the weight of agricultural or
industrial products it carries.

For example, consider the ‘utility units’ attached to villages with certain population ranges
as given below:

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The total utility units for all the villages served by a proposed road may be called, based on this.
Similarly, the utility unit for 1000 tonnes of agricultural products may be taken as 1.00, and that
for 100 tonnes of industrial product as 10.00. If the break-up is not known, a suitable average value
may be taken as the utility unit for the entire productivity.
The total utility units may be got by summing up the values from both these criteria and divided by
the length of the roads, to obtain the total utility per unit length.
Thus, the value for different options under investigation may be compared and the best option with
the highest total utility units chosen.

This option is supposed to be utilized to the maximum extent by traffic in all stretches of the road,
reaching saturation.
This system has been used extensively in the U.S.A.

The disadvantage of this system is the element of arbitrariness of the utility coefficients assigned to
the various factors; but with sound judgment and professional skill and experience, balanced
weightages may be arrived at for choosing the best option.

2.7. Highway Alignment:

Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the alignment. The
highway alignment can be either horizontal or vertical and they are described in detail in the
following sections.

2.7.1. Alignment
The laying out of the centre line of a proposed highway on the ground is called its ‘alignment.
A new road should be aligned carefully since any change in alignment may not be possible or may
be expensive at a later stage, owing to increased land acquisition costs and roadside structures
constructed after the road has taken shape

2.7.2. Horizontal Alignment:

This is the alignment of the roadway in the horizontal plane; Horizontal alignment includes
straight and curved paths. Although it is ideal to have a straight route between end points, it is
practically impossible owing to several constraints. A change in direction necessitates the use of
horizontal curves for smooth flow of traffic.

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 2.7.3. Vertical Alignment:
Vertical alignment includes level and gradients. Although it is ideal to have a roadway at the same
elevation throughout, this is almost impractical and gradients or slopes along the length become
mandatory. A change in gradient calls for curves in the vertical plane; vertical curves should be
designed and constructed for smooth flow of traffic based on several criteria.
The alignment may be smoothened as shown in Fig. 1.5:

Fig. 1.6: Smoothing Alignment

2.7.4. Requirements of an Ideal Alignment:

i. Directness:
The aligned route between end points (two terminal stations) should be as direct as possible be
straight (short and as far as possible) and result in the minimum possible length under the
circumstances., but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.

ii. Ease of Construction, Maintenance and Operation:

The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct, maintain and operate the highway. The
curves and gradients should be easy.

iii. Safety:
Safety for the road-users (operating point of view) should be the primary consideration; the
stability of natural slopes and man-made slopes for embankments and cuttings (Construction point
of view) should be ensured to prevent possible accidents. It should have safe geometric features.

iv. Economy:
The overall cost of construction and maintenance of the road, as also the operation cost of the
vehicles should be as low as possible.

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 v. Special Considerations:
Depending upon the purpose of the highway and the characteristics of the terrain, special
considerations may be needed as in the case of hill roads or ghat roads.

2.7.5. Factors Controlling Alignment:

We have seen the requirements of an Alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy all these
requirements. Hence, we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
The selection of Alignment of a proposed new Highway Route will be based on a careful
consideration of the following factors:

i) Obligatory Points:
These are the control points governing the highway alignment.
These points are classified into two categories:

a) Points through which it should pass:

These are the points through which the alignment has to necessarily pass for maximum utilization
of the road (Figure 1.6). While aligning a new highway route between two end points, it would be
necessary to make it pass through places of importance. This may be based on the population that
can be served, or places of business or industrial importance and

b) Points through which it should not pass.

It is the point from which the road can’t pass .i.e Road deviate from these point in the form of
curve or any any other shape. The obligatory points which should be avoided while aligning the
Highway include unsuitable land, waterlogged area, very costly structures, religious places, etc.

Some of the examples are:

ii) Intermediate Town:
The Alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an intermediate town or village nearby

Fig. 1.6: Alignment to connect Obligatory Points

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 iii) Topographical Features:

Topographical features like a lake or a hillock may require the alignment to be taken around them.
In the case of a big hill the option of constructing a tunnel through it for maintaining a straight
alignment can be considered. The relative costs of these options have to be studied to finalize the
alignment. Fig. 1.7 shows a change in alignment around an obstruction caused by a lake and a
hillock.

Fig. 1.7 Alignment near Topographical features

iv) Geometric Design Aspects:

Factors such as radius of curve, longitudinal gradients, sight distances, road intersections, design
speed, lateral friction, and super-elevation govern the alignment to a considerable degree; radii of
horizontal curves and longitudinal gradients should facilitate easy maneuvering of vehicles.

The alignments should be finalized such that the obstructions to visibility do not restrict the
minimum requirements of sight distance. The design standards vary with the class of road and the
terrain and accordingly the highway should be aligned.

v) Cross-Drainage Needs:
The alignment should be such that bridges are located at right angles to the direction of flow of the
stream or river (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8: Highway alignment across the rectangular cross-section of a river

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 vi) Deviations Dictated by Circumstances:
Although a straight horizontal road is the best option, it is highly monotonous for a driver; so, to
divert attention on a straight road and break the monotony, a slight bend or curve may be created at
least once in a Kilometre or two to make the driver alert.

Obstructions such as places of worship (such as established temples and churches), monuments of
historical interest, public buildings such as hospitals and educational institutions and utility
services like water supply and sewerage lines and overhead transmission lines may necessarily
have to be bypassed.

These places are protected by the law from being acquired for any purpose. Therefore, these points
should be avoided while aligning

This may dictate deviation in the alignment of the roadway, leaving sufficient margin for these
hindrances. Sometimes, the alignment may have to be changed to bypass expensive private
property or agricultural or industrial area.

vii) Proximity to Materials and Labour:

Proximity to the sources of materials for road-making and the availability of cheap labour may be
a criterion for fixing the alignment.

viii) Economic Considerations:

Before an alignment is chosen, two or three alternative routes may have to be investigated and
their overall cost – initial outlay and maintenance cost over a design period – compared. The route
with the best economy is then selected.

Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation which
would result in an increase in initial cost. So, the alignment may be deviated not to pass through
that point.

ix) Political Considerations:

Sometimes, political considerations may dictate the choice of alignment, setting aside even
economic considerations. Of course, the other important criteria have to be necessarily borne in
mind.

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 2.8. Highway Project Preparation:
A Highway Project may be an entirely new Route or it may involve Re-alignment and Re-design
of an existing Road such as for Upgrading its Geometric Design Standards.

2.8.1. The New Highway Project

The work of a new Highway project involves:
a) Selection of the Alignment.
b) Geometric Design.
c) Testing and selection of the materials for the subgrade and the pavement.
d) Pavement Construction including Surfacing, Rolling, Compaction and Curing, if
necessary.
e) Quality Control during Construction.
f) Performance Review and Appraisal under Traffic.

2.8.2. Re-alignment of an Existing Road:

An existing Road may have to be Re-aligned under a variety of circumstances:

1) Re-design and Improvement of Geometric Design Aspects owing to increased Traffic
needs.
2) Raising the level of a Road subjected to Flooding.
3) Re-construction of weak Culverts and Bridges to take care of increased Traffic needs.
4) Construction of over-Bridges and under-Bridges at Road Intersections and level crossing.
5) Construction of a By-pass near a busy Town.

2.8.3. Project Report:

Any Road project should be submitted to the competent authority along with a report.

The report should contain the following:

I. Name of the project
II. Authority for execution
III. Necessity
IV. Summary of alignment details
V. Summary of geometric design aspects
VI. Traffic details including anticipated future needs for a chosen design period
VII. Details of important drainage and cross-drainage works

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 VIII. Specifications for the materials
IX. Details of quantities required
X. Rate analysis
XI. Detailed and abstract estimated
XII. Total cost and duration of the project
XIII. Material sourcing, labour and equipment
XIV. Construction scheduling (using project analysis tools such as CPM and PERT)
XV. Temporary facilities like diversion roads, work-sheds, water supply and power
XVI. Signals and traffic signs
XVII. Lighting
XVIII. Roadside arboriculture

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