UNIVERSITY OF JUBA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 531 HIGHWAY & AIRPORT DESIGN

LECTURE NOTES 2:

Highway Surveying

By

Mr. Chol Deng

Sept 2, 2023
2 INTRODUCTION

To determine the geometric features of road design, A variety of survey and investigations have to
be carried out by Road engineers and multidiscipline persons. The following Type of surveys and
investigations must be conducted after the necessity of the road is decided.

.A. Transport Planning Surveys

o Traffic Surveys

o Highway inventories

o Pavement Deterioration Study

o Accident study

B. Alignment and Route location surveys

o Desk study

o Reconnaissance survey

o Preliminary Survey

o Final location survey

C. Drainage Studies
o Surface run- off : hydrologic and hydraulic

o Subsurface drainage: Ground water & Seepage

o Cross –drainage: location and waterway area required for the cross-drainage
structures.

D. Soil Survey
o Desk study

o Site Reconnaissance

o Determining the complete soil profile through appropriate soil exploration

techniques; obtaining both disturbed and undisturbed samples and testing of
samples

E. Pavement Design investigation

o Soil property and strength, Material Survey

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The alignment of highway is finalized based on different survey. Survey should be done in a right
way to achieve the requirement as much as possible. Highway alignment and location are
facilitated by a systematic step-by-step procedure of conducting ‘Engineering Surveys’

There are four (4) stages of engineering survey which decide the alignment, namely:

These surveys include:

1. Study of Topographic Maps
2. Reconnaissance Survey
3. Preliminary Survey
4. Location Survey and detailed survey

The first three stages survey consider all possible alternative alignment while the fourth stage
survey is detailing. Therefore, the fourth stage survey is called final location and details survey.

2.1. Map study

With the help of topographic map, the possible route of the Road can be decided which helps us
for further study. Topographic maps are available from the Survey; these are contour maps with 15
to 30 m contour intervals and show important topographic features like rivers, valleys, ridges, and
hills. By a careful study of these maps, it is possible to align highways bearing in mind the
obligatory points. Depending upon the elevations of the terminal points, and considering the ruling
gradients and other factors, two or three alternative routes may be chosen.

The possible alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on the map.

i) Alignment avoiding the valley, ponds or lake, etc

ii) When the Road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through mountain
pass
iii) Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding the bend of a river.
iv) When a road is connected between two stations, one on the top and the other on the
foot of the hill, then alternate route can be suggested keeping in view the
permissible gradient say ruling gradient.

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2.2. Reconnaissance survey
The second stage of survey is reconnaissance. Reconnaissance is the process of evaluating the
feasibility of one or more possible routes for a highway between specific point.
The objective of reconnaissance survey is to physically examine the possible alignments observed
during the study of topographical maps. This is generally carried out using simple surveying
instruments such as prismatic compass, Abney level, hand level or tangent clinometer and GPS
Details of certain features not available from the map study are collected during the reconnaissance
survey. All relevant information not available on the map are collected during reconnaissance as
follows:
i. Villages, Ponds, lakes, valleys, bridges, hillocks, and similar topographical features with
relevant details and other obstructions along the route which are not available on the map
ii. Approximate value if gradients, radii of horizontal curves necessary.
iii. Obstructions such as permanent structures not shown on the maps.
iv. Information relating to cross-drainage structures such as culverts, causeways and bridges
required along each of the possible routes.
v. Geological features and information on soil types along the route.
vi. Stability of slopes in the case of hilly terrain.
vii. Sources of construction materials – borrow areas for earth materials and quarries for stones
and broken stone.
viii. Climatic factors, hydrological information, water-table levels, water sources and maximum
flood levels in the case of streams and rivers.
ix. Availability of labour, power and water supply along the route.
x. To locate the obligatory points along the alternative routes.
xi. To determine an approximate estimate of the total cost of construction of the road along
each route.
xii. To determine two or three best possible routes.

Upon completion of the reconnaissance survey, the engineer should be at least in a position to
design the more detailed geotechnical investigations which are likely to follow, and should also
have sufficient information available which, when taken in combination with the social, ecology,
traffic, economic, and political inputs, will enable the selection of one or more apparently
feasible corridor routes. If the reconnaissance survey has been very thorough, and the necessary

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data are readily available, it may be possible immediately to carry out the necessary economic and
environmental comparisons to aid in the determination of the best corridor route.
The results of these studies are presented in a reconnaissance report. In its barest essentials, this
report should state the service and geometric criteria to be satisfied by the project, describe the
preferred route(s), and present tentative estimates of the cost.

2.3. Preliminary Survey:

It is a large-scale study of one or more feasible routes. It consists of running accurate traverse line
along the route already recommended by the reconnaissance survey in order to obtain sufficient
data for the final location. The main purposes of preliminary survey are provided below.

2.3.1. The objectives of a preliminary survey:

a) To compare the proposed routes chosen during reconnaissance for a good alignment.
b) To carry out accurate field work for detailed surveys on the chosen alternative routes
c) To estimate the quantities of the earth work and other materials to facilitate the preparation
of detailed and abstract estimates of the project cost.
d) To choose the best alignment from all angles.

2.3.2. Methods of preliminary surveys

There are two (2) methods of preliminary surveys:

A) Conventional/Ground survey method

B) Aerial survey method

A) Steps in Conventional Method

i. Preparation of base line traverse

Open traverse are run with the help of a theodolite/total station and tapes, the lengths of each of the
lines and the deflection angles wherever a change in direction is required are measured accurately

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 ii. Leveling along the base line traverse

Longitudinal section along the proposed route and cross-sections at intervals of 20 m to 100 m
along the route are to be taken, depending upon the nature of terrain – plain or rolling. Contouring
is also done in the vicinity of the route by using either tachometry or precise levelling. Benchmarks
are connected to GTS/National Grid bench-marks.

iii. Collecting topographical and other details

Topographic surveys consist of determining the horizontal and vertical locations of objects on the
surface of the earth.

Topographic surveys show the nature of the ground or profile of ground which is the most
essential part for proper road alignment.

iv. Drainage study and collection of hydrological data

- Drainage surveys are required mainly for the purpose of design of cross drainage
structure and survey on drainage is quite useful in fixing the gradient or grade lien of
the road.
- Information about high flood level (HFL), depth of water table, rainfall intensity, etc is
being collected.
- `Proper drainage surveys are helpful in the good design of the surface drainage system.

Drainage, cross-drainage works, hydrological data, soil data and details of existing features like
buildings, lakes, rivers, power lines and geological landmarks are collected more accurately than
during reconnaissance.

v. Soil and Material survey/geological study

Soil and material surveys are many important surveys since the earth work related with respect to
the major portion of the road cost.

Detailed information on various classifications of soils is collected and various field tests and
laboratory tests are being carried out for the purpose of their suitability for embankments.

Hence soil investigation is more important in case of soil survey.

Materials such as road aggregates, bitumen, tar cement concrete, and any other required for the
construction of the road. Hence material survey is also carried out in which its suitability,
durability, availability has prime importance and varies laboratory test on-road materials are also
being carried out.

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vi. Traffic survey

The traffic studies is carried out to study the behavioral pattern of the traffic along the project road
and determine the travel pattern on the project road. In the case of a highway project, the detail
information of traffic is much necessary so as to design the road pavement, fixing the number of
traffic lanes, geometric design of roads and other economic aspects.

Objective

The traffic surveys is carried out along the corridor to establish base year traffic as well as travel
characteristics. The baseline traffic characteristics are very important for the assessment of future
traffic and travel pattern. The primary objectives of the traffic surveys are to:

• Determine the motorized and non-motorised traffic volumes along the corridor.
• Determine axle loads distribution and vehicle damage factor required for pavement design.
• Determine requirement of number of lanes in the future years.

Traffic surveys are started from simple traffic counts to detail of traffic nature and transportation
studies. Various studies like speed studies, traffic volume studies, delays, journey time are more
essential to carry out for the purpose of road design and also improvement of existing road
network.

vii. Determination of final center line of the road.

viii. Environmental Impact:

With a view to assess the effects of highway projects on the environment and the surrounding
areas, Environmental Impact assessment (EIA) has been made mandatory by the government.

Environmental impact analysis deals with positive and negative effects of the project and presents
cost-effective preventive measures against any possible damage due to soil erosion, submergence
due to floods, loss of vegetation, forest cover and wildlife ecological balance.

Economic justification needs economic analysis including cost-benefit studies

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 B) Aerial survey method

i. Taking aerial photographs of the steps of the map

ii. The photographs are examined under stereoscope and Control points are selected for
establishing the traverse the alternate proposal
iii. Using stereo-pair observation, topographical observations are required
iv. Photo interpretation methods are used to assess geological features, drainage conditions, etc

Based on these studies (preliminary studies), the final location of the selected route is made on
paper, before being translated on to the ground in the next stage of location and detailed survey.

Before proceeding to detailed Design, the following data are obtained by preliminary surveys for
the Implementation of the Project:
i. Right of way available along the route.
ii. Land acquisition costs.
iii. Data required for geometric design aspects.
iv. Data for pavement design.
v. Cost calculation.
vi. Construction materials, equipment, and labour.

In general, the objectives of preliminary surveys are:

 Survey and collect necessary data (topography, drainage, soil, etc.) on alternate corridor
routes.
o Establishing primary Traverse following the line recommended in the
reconnaissance survey.
o Record all topographical features.
o Levelling work: to determine the Centre Line, Profile & Typical Cross-sections
(just sufficient to approximate earthwork)
o Hydrological Data: to estimate type, number, & size of cross-drainage structures,
and the grade line is decided based on the hydrological and drainage data.

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 o Soil Survey: the suitability of proposed alignment is to be finally decided based on
the soil survey data. The soil survey at this stage helps to work out details of
earthwork, slopes, suitability of materials, sub-soil and surface drainage
requirements, pavement type and approximate thickness requirements
 To estimate quantity of earthwork, material, … of different corridor routes
 Compare alternate corridor routes.

Instruments used for the conventional method of surveying include the theodolite, chain, tapes,
levelling instrument, prismatic compass, plane table and clinometers.
Where the area is large, modern methods involving the use of aerial photogrammetry, remote
sensing and photointerpretation techniques, geographic positioning system (GPS), geographic
information system (GIS), and total stations may be gainfully employed for modelling and precise
determination of the topographic features.

Finalize the best corridor routes from all consideration

2.4. Final Location and Detailed survey

These survey serves the dual purpose by fixing the center line of the road while at the same time
physical data are collected which are necessary for the preparation of complete construction plans,
profile, cross section, and road structure.

2.4.1. Objective of Final Location and Detailed survey

a) The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is to be first
located on the field by establishing the centerline.
b) The detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the information necessary for the
preparation of plans and construction details for the highway project.
c) To determine the cost of the total road project.

Detailed topographical survey of all natural and manmade topographical features has been carried
out by picking up their x, y and z coordinates using Total Stations having automatic data
recording devices with appropriate feature codes attached to each point. Survey corridor is 30m
on either side of the center line of existing road.

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In general, these include:

• Road center line

• Pavement edges
• Outer shoulder edges
• Toe lines of fills and cuts
• Longitudinal and transverse drains/ ditches
• Bridge locations and Details
• River Channel locations along with river cross-sections

All man-made and natural topographical features are surveyed, including:

• Culverts with their type and number

• Water sources, Ponds etc
• Electric and telephone lines
• Huts, Buildings, fences, stairs, hand pumps, bore wells, wells
• All Buildings were collected with suitable codes depending upon its classification
like residential, commercial, educational, health Center, industrial, religious etc.
• Oil and gas pipe lines
• All trees with girth greater than 0.3 meter.

At locations, where existing alignment cross other roads, the survey is extended to 100 to 200 m on
either side of the road center to allow for the geometric improvements. Cross sections at every 50
m interval in flat terrain and at lesser interval on undulating terrain or horizontal curves are also
taken using Total Stations.

Pegging the center line & Center line leveling

The centre-line of the final route is marked by establishing pegs on the ground. All angles are
accurately measured using a transit theodolite. The recommended spacing of the pegs depends on
the nature of the terrain. It is 50 m for plain terrain and 20 m for hilly terrain. The pegs should be
fixed in relation to at least three reference marks, so that they may be re-established in case they
are disturbed.

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Rivers/ Streams/Canals Crossing

All crossing rivers/canals are surveyed up to 200-300m on upstream and downstream sides.

Cross Sections across the channel were taken. Top and bottom of both the banks and center line of

the deepest bed channel has been precisely picked up by total station survey

Longitudinal and Cross-Sections

The topographic survey for Longitudinal and cross-section covers the following Levels for
longitudinal section were picked up at an interval of 25 meter or less at intersections and change of
slope along the centerline of the road.

Cross sections were generally taken at every 50 meter interval along the existing road, but cross
section interval is reduced in rolling/undulating terrain to take care of rapid change of slope.
Soil & Materials site survey (Geotechnical Survey):

The nature and extent of the soils available in and around the chosen route have to be ascertained.
The purpose of soil survey is to identify and classify soil for use in the design and construction of
the road.
Information is gathered on the presence of unstable strata or marshy areas, subsoil water level, and
demarcation of possible borrow areas along the road in accordance recommendations

Construction Survey:

This consists of removing all under-growths such as shrubbery, thickets, tree stumps and rubbish
along the route, setting out the centre-line and the right of way by affixing pegs at appropriate
intervals, cutting a narrow V- shaped cut called ‘Lockspit’ in between the pegs along the route and
making the necessary preparations for implementation of the project.
The final centre-line and profile can be selected using the Digital Terrain Model (DTM).

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