Fire 06 00005 v3

fire
Review
Fire-Resistance Testing Procedures for Construction
Elements—A Review
Shashikant Chaturvedi 1 , Ajitanshu Vedrtnam 1,2, * , Maged A. Youssef 3 , Martin T. Palou 2 ,
Gonzalo Barluenga 4 and Kishor Kalauni 1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Invertis University, Bareilly 243001, UP, India

2 Institute of Construction and Architecture, Slovak Academy of Science, 84503 Bratislava, Slovakia
3 Civil and Environmental Engineering, Western University, 1151 Richmond Street North,
London, ON N6A 5B9, Canada
4 Departamento de Arquitectura, Escuela de Arquitectura, Universidad de Alcalá, 28801 Madrid, Spain
* Correspondence: ajitanshu.m@invertis.org
Abstract: Fire accidents are a significant risk to human life and civil infrastructure. As a counter-
measure, the regulatory bodies of different countries have established standards for evaluating
the performance of construction elements during fire exposure. ISO 834 is the globally accepted
fire-resistance testing standard. Other standards include ASTM E119, BS 476, IS 3809, JIS A 1304, AS
1503, EN 1363, and GB/T 9978, which are utilized by the US, Britain, India, Japan, Australia, Europe,
and China, respectively. This article presents a summary and comparison of the fire-resistance testing
standards. In reality, standard tests for isolated structural members may not efficiently portray realis-
tic fire scenarios due to the fire location, its intensity, etc. Thus, researchers have utilized a variety
of specialized setups and full-scale non-standard fire tests to fulfill their research objectives. The
article includes a summary of selected full-scale, ad hoc, and specialized setups that were reported in
the literature. The article highlights the need for timely updates of fire standards to accommodate
the testing of newly developed construction materials, structural systems, and possible regional fire
scenarios. The article also identifies the research areas that require significant focus in experimental
structural fire-resistant testing.
Citation: Chaturvedi, S.;

Keywords: construction materials; fire-resistance testing; fire standards; full-scale testing
Vedrtnam, A.; Youssef, M.A.;
Palou, M.T.; Barluenga, G.;
Kalauni, K. Fire-Resistance Testing
Procedures for Construction
Elements—A Review. Fire 2023, 6, 5.
1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6010005 Fire accidents are a global challenge. The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)
reported an increase in cases of fire accidents in India over the past years [1]. The NCRB
Academic Editor: Wojciech
W˛egrzyński
data recorded 113,961 deaths (62 per day due, on average) due to fire disasters between
2010 to 2014 [1,2]. India’s 2017 risk survey reported that fire accidents caused 17,700 deaths;
Received: 19 October 2022 42.1% of them happened in residential buildings in 2015 [1]. The National Fire Protection
Revised: 14 December 2022 Association said that, during 2018, there were 1,318,500 fire incidents, 3655 deaths, and
Accepted: 19 December 2022 a $25.6 billion loss in the US, out of which 74% of the deaths were during house fires [3].
Published: 24 December 2022 The fire resistance of building elements is addressed during the design stage to curb fire
incidents. The regulatory bodies of different countries have established guidelines for fire
tests on construction elements. The tests addressed by these guidelines include external
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
fire exposure, ignitibility, fire propagation, non-combustibility, surface spread of blaze, and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. fire resistance. This article focuses on the fire-resistance tests, which are used to assess the
This article is an open access article construction element’s ability to withstand mechanical load for specified fire duration and
distributed under the terms and to act as a fire separation. It assists in choosing appropriate fire-resistive elements based
conditions of the Creative Commons on the intended application. Although it is impossible to predict the actual fire situation,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the fire-resistance test defines the minimum fire resistance that should be maintained to
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ safeguard structures during a fire incident.
4.0/).
Fire 2023, 6, 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6010005 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fire

Fire 2023, 6, 5 2 of 35
Researchers do not always adopt fire testing standards [4]. The standard time–
temperature curves suggested by the regulations are unreal and do not follow the principles
of fire dynamics. The heating period given in the standards is questionable. The load-
ing and boundary conditions specified in the standard tests cannot be compared to real
building fire incidents [4]. Despite all of these limitations, the reproducibility and control
achieved during experimentation, which follows the regulations, prove their usefulness
to consistently measure the structural fire performance of construction elements. Table 1
summarizes the development of fire-resistance testing procedures in chronological order.
Table 1. Historical development of fire-resistance procedures.
Year Development [5,6]

1880 Start of fire tests in Europe.
1884 Establish fire-test facility in Berlin and fire tests of columns in Germany and Austria.
1890 Start of fire tests in the US.
1891 Fire test of the first wall in Germany.
1891 Floor fire test in St. Louis.
1892 Door fire test in Berlin.
1893 Wall fire test in Vienna and fire tests on floors, doors, and windows in Berlin.
1894 Fire test of the isolated floor in Trenton.
1896 Start of column fire tests in the US.
1897 Forming British fire-prevention committee.
1899 Issue the red books and starting of fire tests for walls and doors in the UK.
1902 Establish the first facility for fire tests in the US.
1907 Develop standard tests for fireproof floors.
1909 Develop standard tests for fireproof walls.
1917 Start of underwriter testing programs.
1917 Issue of ASTM C19.
1941 Issue of ASTM E152152.
1972 Issue of IS 3809.
1994 Issue of Japanese standard fire tests.
1999 Issue of EN 1363 (Parts 3 and 4) and ISO 834 (Part 1).
2000 Issue of ISO 834 (Parts 4–8) and UNE-EN 1363-2.
2003 Issue of ISO 834 (Part 9).
2005 Issue of AS 1530 (Part 4).
2008 Issue of GB/T 9978 (Parts 1, 3–9).
2012 Issue of EN 1363 (Part 1) and EN 1365 (Part 1).
2014 Issue of EN 1364 (Parts 3 and 4) and EN 1365 (Part 2).
2015 Issue of EN 1364 (Part 1).
2018 Issue of EN 1364 (Part 2).
2019 Issue of GB/T 9978.2.
2020 Issue of EN 1363-1 2020 (Main) (Replaces EN 1363:1 2012).
Ad hoc fire-resistance testing started in the eighteenth century. However, during the
early days, the reproducibility of the results was questionable, as temperature measurement
procedures, fuel, and furnace size were not standard [7]. To achieve a reliable performance-
based design, which is based on realistic fire performance, researchers conducted full-
Fire 2023, 6, 5 3 of 35
scale [8–10], specialized, and ad hoc tests [11,12]. We have not cited any article in the
literature that provides a comprehensive comparison of fire-resistance testing methods
for construction materials. In this review, full-scale, specialized, or ad hoc setups are also
reported, with an emphasis on the testing procedure and reasons for not choosing standard
test methods.
2. Methodology
2.1. Aim and Objectives
The overarching objective of the paper is to compare and review the existing fire-
resistance testing procedures and setups suggested by several governing bodies of different
countries. The paper provides the following:
1. A comparison of different fire-resistance testing standards based on methods of testing,
furnace design, specimen size, etc.
2. A comparison of performance criteria of different fire-resistance test standards.
3. A summary of limitations of different fire-resistance test standards.
4. A literature review on fire-resistance testing on building and construction materials.
5. A summary of selected full-scale, ad hoc, and specialized setups based on their unique
testing procedures reported in the literature.
2.2. Structure of the Review

The article starts with the chronological historical development of fire-resistance
testing procedures. Then the article reports a detailed comparison of ASTM, Australian,
British, Chinese, DIN, European, Indian, ISO, and Japanese fire-resistance testing standards.
After that, the article provides a discussion on the fire-resistance testing of building and
construction materials. Lastly, the article summarizes selected full-scale, ad hoc, and
specialized setups used in the literature to measure the fire resistance of building materials.
3. Fire-Resistance Test Standards

A fire-resistance test is a measure of load-bearing capacity, structural integrity, fire pen-
etration, fire spread through heat transfer, and insulation. Existing standards recommend
the requirements, acceptance criteria, and testing procedures for fire-resistance testing.
Some of the fire-resistance test standards for building materials and structures adopted
by different countries are shown in Figure 1. This section includes the objectives, setup
description, experimental procedure, outcomes, merits, and demerits of the widely used
fire-resistant testing standards specified by the regulatory bodies of different countries.
The ASTM E119 describes and measures the response of construction elements to heat
and flame under a regulated condition and establishes the duration for which the consid-
ered building material can contain a fire [13]. Similarly, Part 4 of the Australian standard
AS 1530 [14] details heating requirements, test methods, and principles for determining the
fire resistance of walls, ceilings, columns, beams, door sets, air ducts, and other elements.
Likewise, the BS 476 Parts 20–23 proposed by British Standard [15] is used to find the
capability of an element to resist a standard fire with a specific pressure regime without
losing its fire insulation function, its load-bearing capacity, or both. These standards de-
scribe the general procedure, apparatus, temperature, and pressure conditions to measure
the fire resistance of construction elements, load-bearing elements, non-load-bearing el-
ements, and complete structure. Moreover, the Bureau of Indian Standard IS 3809 [16]
explores the extent of resistance for building and construction elements when exposed to
fire. The revised version of this standard is based on ISO 834. Correspondingly, the Chinese
standards evaluate the burning behavior, provide guidance for fire safety structure, and
implement fire protection for building and construction elements to achieve social and
economic benefits. They mostly follow ISO 834 [17] and contain similar principles and
procedures for defining the fire resistance of construction elements. The German Institute
for Standardization, DIN 4102 [18] for fire-resistance testing, specifies methods for fire
protection to be applied to building and construction elements to withstand specific heating
Fire 2023, 6, 5 4 of 35
and pressure conditions. Similarly, the Japanese Industrials Standard JIS 1304 [19] describes
buildings’ fire-resistance test method. The principle and methods for these standards also
follow ISO 834. Europe has developed the fire-resistance testing standard EN1363 [20],
which provides the guidelines for construction and building materials under fire conditions.
EN 1363 covers information about the methodology of fire-resistance testing of construction
or building materials. The ISO standard for fire-resistance testing specifies a procedure for
fire protection applied to building and construction materials. It describes the method that
should be carried out to measure the ability of a fire-protection system for a well-defined
range of deformations, temperatures, furnaces, thermal characteristics, etc. It is applica-
ble for both reactive and passive fire-protection systems [21]. A comparison of different
fire-resistance test standards for construction and building materials, along with their main
objectives, is summarized in Tables 2–5. The fire-resistance testing standards recommend
Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW different specimen sizes, the heating method, the standard time/temperature curve, 4 oftest
39
methods, and their performance criteria.
Figure 1. Fire‐resistance‐test standards for building elements and structures.

Figure 1. Fire-resistance-test standards for building elements and structures.
The ASTM E119 describes and measures the response of construction elements to
Table 2. Fire-resistance standards for general principles and requirements of construction elements.
heat and flame under a regulated condition and establishes the duration for which the
Standard considered building material can contain a fire [13]. Similarly, Part 4 of the Australian
Objective
standard AS 1530 [14] details heating requirements, test methods, and principles for de‐
BS 476-20 The test describes general principles for the measurement of fire resistance of building structures.
termining the fire resistance of walls, ceilings, columns, beams, door sets, air ducts, and
GB/T 9978.1 General requirements
other elements. for fire-resistance
Likewise, the BStests
476 of building
Parts 20–23elements.
proposed by British Standard [15] is used
GB/T 9978.6 It describes the requirements for fire-resistance tests on beam.
to find the capability of an element to resist a standard fire with a specific pressure regime
GB/T 9978.7 Requirements for fire-resistance tests of columns.
without losing its fire insulation function, its load‐bearing capacity, or both. These stand‐
DIN 4102-2 Concepts
ardsand requirements
describe for building
the general components
procedure, for firetemperature,
apparatus, testing. and pressure conditions to
EN 1363: Part 1 The test describes
measure thethe general
fire requirements
resistance for fire-resistance
of construction elements,test. load‐bearing elements, non‐load‐
ISO 834: Part 1 bearing
General elements,
principles andequipment,
regarding completeinstrumentation,
structure. Moreover, the Bureau of Indian Standard IS
and procedures.
ISO 834: Part 6 3809describes
This test [16] explores the extent
certain requisite forof resistance for building and construction elements when
beams.
ISO 834: Part 7 This test describes
exposed certain
to fire. Therequisite
revisedfor columns.
version of this standard is based on ISO 834. Correspondingly,
the Chinese standards evaluate the burning behavior, provide guidance for fire safety
structure, and implement fire protection for building and construction elements to achieve
social and economic benefits. They mostly follow ISO 834 [17] and contain similar princi‐
ples and procedures for defining the fire resistance of construction elements. The German
Institute for Standardization, DIN 4102 [18] for fire‐resistance testing, specifies methods
for fire protection to be applied to building and construction elements to withstand spe‐
cific heating and pressure conditions. Similarly, the Japanese Industrials Standard JIS 1304
[19] describes buildings’ fire‐resistance test method. The principle and methods for these
Fire 2023, 6, 5 5 of 35
Table 3. Fire-resistance standards for load-bearing construction elements.
Standard Objective
BS 476-21 This test describes a fire-resistance test for load-bearing construction materials.
GB/T 9978.4 This test describes a fire-resistance test for load-bearing vertical elements.
GB/T 9978.5 This test describes a fire-resistance test for load-bearing horizontal elements.
EN 1365: Part 1 This test describes a fire-resistance test for load-bearing walls.
EN 1365: Part 2 This test describes a fire-resistance test for load-bearing floor and roof.
EN 1365: Part 3 This test describes a fire-resistance test for load-bearing beams.
EN 1365: Part 4 This test describes a fire-resistance test for the load-bearing column.
ISO 834: Part 4 This test describes a certain requisite for load-bearing vertical separating elements.
ISO 834: Part 5 This test describes a certain requisite for load-bearing horizontal separating elements.
Table 4. Fire-resistance standards for non-load-bearing construction elements.
Standard Objective
BS 476-22 This test describes a fire-resistance test for non-load-bearing construction elements.
GB/T 9978.8 This test describes a certain requisite for non-load-bearing vertical elements during fire-resistance tests.
GB/T 9978.9 This test describes a certain requisite for non-load-bearing ceiling elements during fire-resistance tests.
EN 1364: Part 1 This test describes a fire-resistance test for non-load-bearing walls.
EN 1364: Part 2 This test describes a fire-resistance test for non-load-bearing ceilings.
EN 1364: Part 3 Fire-resistance test of non-load-bearing completely assembled curtain walls.
EN 1364: Part 4 This test describes a fire-resistance test of parts of non-load-bearing curtain wall.
ISO 834: Part 8 This test describes certain requisite for non-load-bearing vertical separating elements.
ISO 834: Part 9 This test describes certain requisite for non-load-bearing ceiling elements.
Table 5. Fire-resistance test standard for some other miscellaneous tests.
Standard Objective
BS 476-23 This test evaluates the contribution of building components to the fire resistance of a structure.
GB/T 7633 This test evaluates the fire resistance of door and shutters.
GB/T 12513 This test evaluates the fire resistance of glazed elements.
GB/T 24573 This test evaluates the fire resistance of coffers and Archive’s door.
GB 12955 This test evaluates the fire resistance of fire doors.
GB 14102 This test evaluates the fire resistance of fire-resistant shutters.
GB 15763.1 This test evaluates the fire resistance of fire-resistant glass.
GB 16809 This test evaluates the fire resistance of steel fire windows.
GB 16807 This test evaluates the fire resistance of fire intumescent seals.
GB 23864 This test evaluates the fire resistance of firestop materials.
DIN 4102-1 Classification of building materials for fire performance of construction materials.
DIN 4102-4 Overview and design of elements, materials, and components under fire exposure.
DIN 4102-8 Small-scale furnace for fire testing of construction materials and elements.
DIN 4102-14 A radiant heat source used to determine the behavior of floor covering system.
DIN 4102-15 ‘Brandschacht’ apparatus for fire behavior of construction materials and elements.
DIN 4102-16 ‘Brandschacht’ tests for fire behavior of construction materials and elements.
3.1. Types of Furnaces in Different Fire-Resistance Test Standards

Furnaces are designed to evaluate the fire conditions and fire-resistance ratings of
construction elements according to international standards. In general, there are hori-
zontal, vertical, hydraulic tilting, indicative, and miniature fire-resistance test furnaces
(Figure 2a–e) [22]. The horizontal furnace, as shown in Figure 2a, is used in the case of slabs,
floors, roofs, and ceilings. In contrast, the vertical furnace, as shown in Figure 2b, is used in
the case of walls, doors, columns, and partitions. The hydraulic tilting furnace (Figure 2c)
Fire 2023, 6, 5 6 of 35
is a dual-purpose furnace for fire-resistance tests on a slab, wall, ceiling, and beam in
both vertical and horizontal positions. The indicative type of fire-resistance test furnace
(Figure 2d) is useful to conduct tests for small samples and assemblies which are exposed
to high temperatures. Similarly, the miniature fire-resistance-test furnaces (Figure 2e) are
used to conduct fire tests on small vertical samples.
In BS 476, the furnace needs to be designed according to the type of specimen being
tested. For vertical separating element (e.g., walls), the furnace should provide the standard
heating and pressure condition on one face of the element. However, for horizontal separat-
ing elements, the furnace should provide the standard heating and pressure condition from
the underside of the element. For beams and columns, the furnace should provide pressure
and heating conditions on all four faces. The size of the furnace opening must be larger
than the exposed face of the specimen by a minimum ration of 1.5. A pressure-sensing
probe should be used to determine the static pressure within the furnace. The time of the
commencement of the heating in the furnace should be recorded. The arrangement of
pressure and heating applied on the test sample in BS 476 is shown in Figure 3 [23]. The
Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW furnace, loading equipment, overpressure-measuring instruments, thermocouple, 7 of 39etc., for
the Bureau of Indian standard, IS 3809, are adapted from BS 478 Part 8.
(a) (b)
(c) (d) (e)

Figure 2. Test furnaces: (a) horizontal, (b) vertical, (c) hydraulic, (d) indicative, and (e) miniature.
Figure 2. Test furnaces: (a) horizontal, (b) vertical, (c) hydraulic, (d) indicative, and (e) miniature.
Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 39
Fire 2023, 6, 5 7 of 35
Figure 3. Pressure
Figure 3. Pressure and
and heating
heating applied
applied on
on aa test
test sample
sampleaccording
accordingto
toBS
BS476.
476.
3.2. Specimen Size in Different Fire-Resistance Test Standards

3.2. Specimen Size in Different Fire‐Resistance Test Standards
Generally, full-size specimens are required for fire-resistance tests. However, if it is not
Generally, full‐size specimens are required for fire‐resistance tests. However, if it is
possible to test a full-size specimen, specimens meeting at least the minimum dimensions
not possible to test a full‐size specimen, specimens meeting at least the minimum dimen‐
can be used (see Table 6).
sions can be used (see Table 6).
Table 6. Specimen size for fire testing according to different fire-resistance test standards.
Table 6. Specimen size for fire testing according to different fire‐resistance test standards.
Scheme 119. Wall and Partitions
Scheme 119. Wall and Partitions FloorFloor
andandFlat
Flat Roofs
Roofs Columns
Columns Beams
Beams Suspended Celling
Suspended Celling
Exposure Area ≥ 9 m2 Exposure Area ≥ 16 m2 Exposure Area ≥ 16 m2
ASTM E119 Exposure
Height ≥ 2.7 Area
m ≥ 9 m2 Exposure Area
Length ≥ 3.7 m ≥ 16 m2 Height ≥ 2.7 m Length ≥ 3.7 m Exposure
Length ≥ 3.7 mArea ≥ 16 m2
ASTM E119 Height ≥ 2.7 m Length ≥ 3.7 m
AS 1530 Height
Exposure ≥ 2.7=m
Area 3.0 × 3.0 m2 Length ≥ Area
Exposure 3.7 m
= 4.0 × 3.0 m2 Height ≥ 3.0 m Length ≥ 3.0 m LengthArea
Exposure ≥ 3.7 m× 3.0 m2
= 4.0
BS 476, DIN 4102, Exposure
Width = 3.5 mArea = 3.0 × Exposure Area
Width = 2.5 m = 4.0 × Exposure Area =2 4.0 ×
AS
EN 1530
1363, ISO 834 Height2= 2.5 m
Height≥≥3.0
Height 3.0 m
m Length ≥≥4.0
Length 3.0mm Exposure Area ≥ 10 m
3.0 m 3.0Span
m2= 4.0 m 3.0 m2
Width = 3.0 m Width = 2.0 m
BS 476, DIN
IS 3809
Height = 3.0 m Span = 4.0 m
Height = 3.0 m Length = 4.0 m NA
4102, EN 1363, Height = 2.4 m Length = 2.4 m Height ≥ 3.0 m Length ≥ 4.0 m Exposure Area ≥ 10 m2
JIS A 1304 Height = 2.5
Width = 1.8 m m Span = =4.0
Width m
1.8 m
Height = 2.4 m Length = 2.4 m NA
ISO 834
IS 3809 Height = 3.0 m Length = 4.0 m NA
Height = 3.0 m3.3. Test Procedures
Span = 4.0inmDifferent Fire-Resistance Test Standards
Height = 2.4 m The Length
heating=method
2.4 m and standard temperature/time curve [23] for different fire-
JIS A 1304 Height = 2.4 m Length = 2.4 m NA
Width = 1.8 m resistance testing standards
Width = 1.8 m are given in Table 7 and Figure 4.
Fire 2023, 6, 5 8 of 35
3.3. Test Procedures in Different Fire‐Resistance Test Standards
The heating method and standard temperature/time curve [23] for different fire‐re‐
sistance testing standards are given in Table 7 and Figure 4.
Table 7. Heating method of different test standards.
Table 7. Heating method of different test standards.
Wall and Floor and Suspended
Standard Columns Beams
Partitions
Wall and Parti‐ Flat Roofs
Floor and Flat Celling Cel‐
Suspended
Standard Columns Beams
ASTM E119 One side
tions Underside
Roofs Four sides Four sides Underside
ling
ASTM E119
BS 476 One side Underside Four sides Four sides Underside
One side Underside Four sides Four sides Underside
EN
BS 1363
476
One side Underside Four sides Four sides Underside
EN 1363
IS 3809 One side Underside Four sides Three sides Underside
IS 3809
ISO 834 One side
One side Underside
Underside Four sides
Four sides Three
Three sides
or four sides Underside
Underside
ISO 834 One side Underside Four sides Three or four sides Underside
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Comparison
Comparison of
of time/temperature
time/temperature curves
curves of
of different
different fire‐resistance standards.
fire-resistance standards.
In
In ASTM
ASTME119,
E119,aamixture
mixtureofofgas
gasandandairairis is
ignited
ignitedand
andfedfed
into thethe
into furnace assembly
furnace assemblyso
that the the
so that internal temperature
internal risesrises
temperature according
according to Equation (1). ASTM
to Equation E119E119
(1). ASTM also covers heat
also covers
transmission and the
heat transmission ability
and the to withstand
ability a streamafrom
to withstand a water
stream fromhose. The hose-stream
a water test
hose. The hose‐
is not required for a construction with a fire rating less than 1 h.
stream test is not required for a construction with a fire rating less than 1 h.
𝑇T − 𝑇T0 = 345log
345𝑙𝑜𝑔 8𝑡1) 1
10 (8t +
(1)
(1)
where T is the average temperature recorded by thermocouples arranged within the furnace
at time (t) in ◦ C (minimum number of thermocouples = five, one per 1.5 m2 of surface area
Fire 2023, 6, 5 9 of 35
of floor and wall, two per 1 m of length of beam, and two per 1 m height of column); T0 is
the initial furnace temperature in ◦ C; and t is the time in minutes.
In BS 476, the load can be applied by using a hydraulic jack. The specimen support
system should have sufficient rigidity and stiffness to restrain the boundaries or the ends
of the test specimen, considering thermal deformations and applied loads. Fixed-surface,
either type T or type K, thermocouple wires with a maximum diameter of 0.5 mm should be
used. A radiometer should be used to measure irradiance within a range of 0 to 100 kW/m2 .
For measuring the internal temperature of the specimen, internal thermocouples should
be used. Figure 5 represents the restraints applied on the specimen in a vertical furnace
to measure the fire resistance of a load-bearing wall. Figure 5a shows a 2D representation
of a fire-resistance testing on loaded wall. The wall experiences one-sided fire exposure
during the test, as depicted in Figure 5b. It can be seen in Figure 5 that a translational fixity
is provided at the bottom side. However, there is no dimensional restraint provided on
the wall specimen itself to allow the specimen to swell up during fire exposure. Figure 6
shows the different views of dimensional restraint applied on a non-load-bearing wall
during the fire-resistance testing. Figure 7 demonstrates the arrangement for the fire testing
of floor specimens. The supports restraining the edges of the test specimen shall have
sufficient stiffness and rigidity to resist forces exerted by any thermal movement induced
during the test and should represent the real service conditions. The floor specimen is
placed in the horizontal fire furnace, and the specified loads are applied. The specimen is
then exposed to fire from the underside to test its load-bearing capacity, insulation, and
integrity. Figure 8 shows the arrangement for the fire testing of column specimens. In
this arrangement, the column is protected from lateral deformation at its top and fixed
at its bottom. The specified load is applied to the column while exposing the column to
fire from four sides. The load bearing, insulation, and integrity are measured in terms
of duration causing failure to the considered criterion. Figure 9 demonstrates the test
setup for the fire-resistance testing of a beam specimen. The specimen is not restrained
in the torsional and lateral directions. Tests generally start by measuring the ambient
temperature and applying constant specified loads. Then the specimen is heated in the
furnace at controlled temperature and pressure conditions. The temperature–time heating
regime should follow Equation (2). For assessment of structures that contain fuels including
petrochemicals, the standard hydrocarbon curve, given by Equation (3), should be followed.
The mean furnace temperature is measured by thermocouples, which can be either bare
nickel chromium/nickel aluminum wire with a diameter of 0.75 to 1.5 mm or nickel
chromium/nickel aluminum mineral insulated thermocouple. It is recommended that the
thermocouple hot junctions should be arranged at 50 to 150 mm from the surface of the
specimen to avoid any damage. The percentage deviation (ρ), Equation (4), between the
mean furnace time–temperature curve and the standard time–temperature curve should not
exceed 15% at fire duration of 10 min, 10% for fire duration from 10 to 30 min, and 5% for
fire duration from 30 min to the termination of the heating period. Moreover, starting with a
fire duration of 10 min, the temperature rise in any of the furnace thermocouples should not
differ from the standard fire temperature by more than 100 ◦ C. This temperature difference
is allowed to reach 200 ◦ C for a construction with combustible material. Regarding the
furnace pressure, a positive pressure needs to be established for a duration of 5 min. The
pressure gradient within the furnace must not exceed 20 Pa. Deflection of the specimen is
monitored and recorded. A radiometer is used to measure the radiation flux emitted from
the unexposed face.
T = 345log10 (8t + 1) + 20 (2)
T = 1100[1 − 0.325 exp(−0.1667t)] (3)
( A − B)
ρ= × 100 (4)
B
where T is the mean furnace temperature in ◦ C at time, t, measured in minutes; and A and
B are the area under the mean furnace and standard time–temperature curve, respectively.
Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 𝜌 100 11 of 39 (4)
𝐵
where T is the mean furnace temperature in °C at time, t, measured in minutes; and A and
𝐴standard
𝐴
B are the area under the mean furnace and 𝐵
𝐵 time–temperature curve, respectively.
𝜌𝜌 𝐵
100
100 (4) (4)
𝐵
Fire 2023, 6, 5 10 of 35
where T
where T is
is the
the mean
mean furnace
furnace temperature
temperature in
in °C
°C at
at time,
time, t,t, measured
measured in
in minutes;
minutes; and
and A
A and
and
(a) (b) (c)

(a) Figure 5. Restraints for load‐bearing walls:
(a) (b)(a) 2D, (b) 3D, and (c) section.
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure 5. Restraints for load‐bearing walls: (a) 2D, (b) 3D, and (c) section.
Figure 5. Restraintsfor
forload-bearing
load‐bearing walls:
Figure 5. Restraints walls:(a)
(a)2D,
2D,(b)(b)
3D, andand
3D, (c) section.
(c) section.
(a)
(a) (a) (b)
(b)
(b) (c) (c)
(c)
Figure 6. Restraints for non‐load‐bearing walls: (a) 2D, (b) 3D, and (c) section.
Figure 6. Restraintsfor
fornon‐load‐bearing
non‐load‐bearing walls:
Figure
Figure 6. Restraints
6. Restraints for non-load-bearing walls:(a)(a)
walls:
2D,
(a) (b)(b)
2D,
2D,
3D,3D,
andand
(b) 3D,
(c) section.
(c) section.
and (c) section.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Cont.
Fire
Fire 2022,
2022, 5,
5, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 12
12 of
of 39
39
Fire 2023, 6, 5 11 of 35
(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Restraints
Restraints for
for floors:
floors: (a)
(a) 2D,
2D, (b)
(b) section,
section, (c)
(c) 3D,
3D, and
and (d)
(d) rotational
rotational fixity.
fixity.
Figure 7. Restraints for floors: (a) 2D, (b) section, (c) 3D, and (d) rotational fixity.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Restraints
Restraints for
for columns
columns pinned
pinned at
at one
one end:
end: (a)
(a) 2D,
2D, (b)
(b) 3D,
3D, and
and (c)
(c) section.
section.
Figure 8. Restraints for columns pinned at one end: (a) 2D, (b) 3D, and (c) section.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. Restraints
Restraints for
for beams:
beams: (a)
(a) 2D,
2D, (b)
(b) section,
section, and
and (c)
(c) beam
beam fixed
fixed at
at one
one end.
end.
Figure 9. Restraints for beams: (a) 2D, (b) section, and (c) beam fixed at one end.
The
The test
The test methods
test methods
methodsof of the
ofthe Bureau
Bureauofof
theBureau Indian
ofIndian Standard,
Standard,ISIS
IndianStandard, IS 3809,
3809,
3809, areare
are equivalent
equivalent
equivalent to to
to those
those
those of
of
BS BS
of BS 478.
478.478.After After
After
sample sample
sample preparation
preparation
preparation according
according
according to
to JIS to JIS A
JIS Athe
A 1304, 1304,
1304, the specimen
the specimen
specimen is passed
is passedisthrough
passed
through
athrough
heat test aa heat
heat
for 30 test
test
minfor 30
forfor
301,min
min for
2, 3,for 1,
and1, 2,
2, 3,
4 h, and
and 44 h,
h, correspondingly.
3, correspondingly.
correspondingly. If
If the
If the structuralthe structural
structural
parts pass parts
parts
the
pass
pass the
heat the heat
test heat test
test as
as given ingiven
as JIS A in
given in JIS
JIS A
1304, 1304,
1304, aaheat
aAloaded loaded
loadedtestheat
(L),test
heat test (L),
(L), watering
watering watering
test (W), test
test (W),
and(W), and shock
andtest
shock shock(S)
test
test (S)
(S) are
are performed.
performed. In
In the
the JIS
JIS A
A 1304
1304 testing
testing standard,
standard, the
the
are performed. In the JIS A 1304 testing standard, the size of the specimen should be the size
size of
of the
the specimen
specimen should
should
be
be the
sametheas same
that as
same as
usedthat
that used
forused for
for practical
practical practical
purposes. purposes.
purposes. The
The specimen
The specimen specimen is
is then
then classified
is then classified based onbased
classified based
the testson
on
the
that tests
the tests that it
that itFor
it passed. passed.
passed. For example,
For when
example, example, when
when a is
a specimen a specimen
specimen is
classifiedisas classified
classified
a 2 h heat as a
asWS,a2h2 h heat
heat
this WS, this
WS, that
means this
means
means
the that
sample the
the sample
that conceded sample theconceded
conceded
2-hour heat the 2‐hour
the test,
2‐hourtheheat
heat test,
test, the
watering the watering
test, watering
and shock test,
test, and
and
test. Theshock
shock
source test.
test.
of
Fire
Fire 2022,
2023, 6,5,5 x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of1239of 35
The source
heating of heating
could be town could
gas,be town gas,
propane, propane,
fuel, oil, or fuel, oil, or source.
any other any otherThesource.
frameThe frame
supporting
supporting the test specimen should be heat proof and designed to hold the
the test specimen should be heat proof and designed to hold the test surface at a fixed test surface
at a fixed Wall
position. position. Wall specimens
specimens are heatedare heated
from onefrom
side.one side. Columns
Columns are from
are heated heated from
four sides.
four sides. Beams
Beams and floors are heated from the underside. If there is any possibility of heatingofpart
and floors are heated from the underside. If there is any possibility
heating part of the test setup, a gap should be added between the setup and the specimen.
of the test setup, a gap should be added between the setup and the specimen. The pressure
The pressure on the specimen’s surface is measured by using a manometer. The heating
on the specimen’s surface is measured by using a manometer. The heating temperature is
temperature is measured with a grade 0.75 chromium–aluminum thermocouple of 1 mm
measured with a grade 0.75 chromium–aluminum thermocouple of 1 mm diameter.
diameter.
3.4. Performance Criterion in Different Fire-Resistance Test Standards
3.4. Performance Criterion in Different Fire‐Resistance Test Standards
The standards define three terms: structural tolerability (the capability of the structure
The standards
to sustain define capacity
its load-bearing three terms:
andstructural tolerability a(the
stability throughout capability
fire), integrityof(the
thecapability
struc‐
ture to sustain its load‐bearing capacity and stability throughout a fire), integrity (the ca‐
to contain hot gases and flames in one compartment), and insulation (the ability to contain
pability to contain hot gases and flames in one compartment), and insulation (the ability
the fire temperature within one compartment with limited temperature increase in other
to contain the fire temperature within one compartment with limited temperature in‐
compartments). The functional criteria of fire resistance have necessities for load magnitude
crease in other compartments). The functional criteria of fire resistance have necessities
for load-bearing structural elements, as well as integrity and insulation for separating
for load magnitude for load‐bearing structural elements, as well as integrity and insula‐
elements. In the EN 1363 fire test standard, for load-bearing elements, the test specimen
tion for separating elements. In the EN 1363 fire test standard, for load‐bearing elements,
shall not lose the load-bearing property for which it was constructed. For elements such
the test specimen shall not lose the load‐bearing property for which it was constructed.
as floors and walls, which have the purpose of separating building compartments, the
For elements such as floors and walls, which have the purpose of separating building
unexposed side temperature of the specimen shall not be increased by more than 140 ◦ C
compartments, the unexposed ◦side temperature of the specimen shall not be increased by
on average or more than 180 C at any location. The integrity of elements such as floors
more than 140 ºC on average or more than 180 ºC at any location. The integrity of elements
and walls, which have the purpose of separating two parts of a building, requires that the
such as floors and walls, which have the purpose of separating two parts of a building,
elements do not develop cracks and holes through which hot gases or flames can pass.
requires that the elements do not develop cracks and holes through which hot gases or
Final
flames can pass.failure
integrity shall be considered
Final integrity failure shall when the breakdown
be considered when theofbreakdown
the specimen takes
of the
place. During the fire test, the specimen is exposed to fire under controlled
specimen takes place. During the fire test, the specimen is exposed to fire under controlled conditions
that satisfythat
conditions the satisfy
specifiedthe time–temperature curve. The
specified time–temperature fireThe
curve. duration causingcausing
fire duration failure is
recorded. Figure 10 shows the definition of a fire-resistance level of 90/90/90,
failure is recorded. Figure 10 shows the definition of a fire‐resistance level of 90/90/90, which means
that structural adequacy, integrity, and insulation will satisfy the requirements
which means that structural adequacy, integrity, and insulation will satisfy the require‐ for at least
90 minfor
ments [24].
at least 90 min [24].
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Fire‐resistance
Fire-resistancelevel.
level.
Continuous heating
Continuous heatingisisprovided
providedtotothethespecimen
specimen until failure,
until considering
failure, considering oneone
of the
of the
performance criteria (load‐bearing ability, integrity, and insulation). It should
performance criteria (load-bearing ability, integrity, and insulation). It should be noted thatbe noted
athat a specimen
specimen is deemed
is deemed to fail
to fail in maintaining
in maintaining itsits load‐bearingability
load-bearing abilitywhen
whenthe
the deflection
deflec‐
tion exceeds L/20 or the rate of deflection in mm/minute, measured after
exceeds L/20 or the rate of deflection in mm/minute, measured after reaching a deflectionreaching a de‐
flection of L/30, exceeds
2 L2/(9000.D), where L and D are the clear span length and height
of L/30, exceeds L /(9000.D), where L and D are the clear span length and height of
specimen section in mm, respectively [25]. Integrity failure happens when the fire starts on
the unexposed face of the specimen. This can be defined by the ignition of a cotton pad
Fire 2023, 6, 5 13 of 35
on the unexposed side, or having cracks in the specimen, which allow a 6 mm diameter
gauge to enter for a minimum distance of 150 mm or allow a 25 mm gauge to penetrate
such that the end of the gauge projects into the furnace. Insulation failure occurs when the
mean unexposed face temperature increases by more than 140 ◦ C, or if the temperature
recorded at any position on the unexposed side increases by more than 180 ◦ C above the
initial mean unexposed side temperature. The performance criterion for the fire test in BS
476 fire test standard is similar to EN 1363 [15]. According to ISO 834, for load-bearing
elements, the specimen should not collapse during load-bearing function act for which it
was made. Furthermore, for the insulation criterion, the average temperature (unexposed
face) shall not increase above the initial temperature by more than 140 ◦ C. The maximum
temperature at any point shall not increase the initial temperature by more than 180 ◦ C, and
the maximum temperature at any point shall not increase by more than 220 ◦ C, irrespective
of the initial temperature. For integrity, the initial failure shall not occur due to cracks,
holes, or other openings. The initial integrity failure shall occur when a 100 mm2 by
20 mm thick cotton pad is ignited or sustained flaming for 10 s on the unexposed face of
the specimen [21]. However, in ASTM E119, the elements shall sustain the applied load
during the fire-resistance test. Furthermore, for floors and roofs, the average temperature
(unexposed face) shall not increase above the initial temperature by more than 139 ◦ C. For
a beam element, the temperature at any point shall not increase the initial temperature by
more than 704 ◦ C, and the average temperature shall not increase by more than 593 ◦ C. For
integrity, the specimen shall withstand the fire and hose-stream test as specified, without
passage of flame, gases, and water from the hose stream. The failure occurs when an
opening permits a projection of water from the stream beyond the unexposed surface [13].
3.5. Limitation in Different Fire-Resistance Test Standards

There are a few limitations within the ASTM standard. The standard does not provide
guidelines to estimate the performance of test samples constructed with components or
lengths excluded than those tested. Moreover, it does not evaluate the degree to which
the test specimen contributes to the fire threat by the generation of toxic gases, smoke, or
other products of ignition. Measurement of blaze spread over the surface of test specimens
is also missing in this standard. The limitations for BS 476 include the inability to depict
real fire scenario. As IS 3809–1979 was published in 1979, the updates incorporated in
BS 476 (published in 1987), such as improvement in measurement methods, i.e., usage
of roving thermocouples, are not incorporated in IS 3809–1972. Additional limitations
for all standards, including the size of the furnace, are not standardized, and there is no
documented approach to assess the residual strength of a specimen. Additionally, the test
standards should be updated more frequently to cover the special requirements of new
building materials.
4. Fire-Resistance Furnaces
Several fire-resistance test setups and furnaces have been developed at the large and
small scale to conduct fire-resistance tests (Table 8). Kai et al. carried out a fire test in a
horizontal structure fire furnace. The three sides (two sides and the bottom) of the specimen
(reactive powder concrete beam) were exposed to the fire and heated under a constant load.
In this setup, both ends of the specimen were simply supported with concentrated loads at
three deflection points [26]. Imani et al. conducted a fire-resistance test in the vertical fire
test furnace. In this furnace, there were two concrete beams enclosed between two concrete
columns and moving and fixed walls. The two thermocouple sets were used to record the
temperature distribution throughout the specimen and control the furnace air temperature,
respectively [27]. Kodur et al. conducted a fire-resistance test on RC columns in a structural
fire-resistance testing furnace. In this setup, all four columns were exposed to the fire,
along with the structural loading [28]. Shah et al. investigated the full-scale fire-resistance
performance of confined concrete columns in a column fire furnace. This furnace was
equipped with ceramic fiber rolls and Face Cyanite bricks for insulation. Moreover, it
Fire 2023, 6, 5 14 of 35
had burners, an air blower, a motor pump, and thermocouples [29]. Ji et al. conducted a
fire-resistance test in small-scale testing furnace. In this setup, two thermocouples were
attached to measure the back side temperature and to monitor the furnace temperature [30].
Similarly, Cutter et al. developed a novel small-scale fire-resistance test method. The
apparatus used for fire testing was made from mild steel. In this furnace, one side was
detachable, and samples were held in square brackets [31].
Terrasi et al. carried out a fire experiment on thin-walled high-strength concrete slabs
under structural loading in a large-scale furnace [32]. Similarly, Nair et al. conducted a
fire test for concrete columns in the customized large-scale furnace. This furnace had two
natural-gas-fed burners, a movable large front door, and three square vents to facilitate
long specimens. Three thermocouples were used to measure temperature and maintain
the standard fire profile [33]. Lineham et al. developed a customized fire testing setup
to access the structural performance under severe heating. In this furnace, the heating
was imposed via a propane-fired radiant panel. Mineral wool was used to create a heated
area which assisted in promoting 1D heat transfer [34]. Salem conducted a parametric
study to investigate the structural fire performance of HSS steel beams in a fire testing
furnace. In this furnace, ceramic rods were installed inside the furnace and attached with
linear variable differential transformers to measure displacements at different locations [35].
Moliner et al. evaluated the fire behavior of slender circular hollow concrete columns
subjected to eccentric axial loading in a horizontal furnace. This furnace was equipped
with hydraulic jack, natural gas burners, thermocouples, and pressure sensors [36]. The
large-scale fire-resistance test has been conducted to determine the fire-resistance properties
of different materials. Some of the large-scale fire-resistance furnaces are developed by fire
testing and technology (FTT), such as the large-scale vertical fire-resistance test furnace,
horizontal fire-resistance test furnace, indicative fire-resistance furnaces, and conceptual
designed fire furnace of Victoria University Werribee Campus [37–40]. The FTT furnaces
can be used to evaluate fire resistance of doors, walls, dampers, joints, penetration seals,
horizontal construction assembly, supports, columns, etc. Similarly, Victoria University
Werribee Campus has provided unique large-scale structural fire test furnaces. These
furnaces are capable of testing under combined structural and fire loadings. These furnaces
can be used to test walls, floors, columns, beams, panels, tunnel elements, etc.
During a fire test, the thermal exposure of a sample varies for the same time–
temperature relation as the temperature in the furnace is controlled as per the convec-
tive condition, but the sample is more sensitive to radiation exposure. To address this issue,
the plate thermometer can be used to measure and control furnace temperature [41]. The
plate thermometer measures the effective temperature of the specimen inside a refractory
furnace during a fire-resistance test [42]. Additionally, the plate thermometer can also be
used for measuring heat flux in several fire experiments [43–46]. The construction of the
plate thermometer is given in EN1363-1 and ISO 834-1. It has a large area for domination
of radiant heat transfer and quick thermal response. Moreover, the plate thermometer
comprises a thin steel plate (100 mm × 100 mm × 0.7 mm), with more than 0.7 surface
emissivity, with a protecting fiberboard on one side [44].
Fire 2023, 6, 5 15 of 35
Table 8. Examples of fire-resistance test furnaces, along with their specifications and schematics.
Table 8. Examples of fire‐resistance test furnaces, along with their specifications and schematics.
S. No. Furnace Specifications Schematics Ref.
Size 6 m × 5 m × 1.5 m
Fire curve fol‐
ISO 834
Size lows
6 m × 5 m × 1.5 m
Large
Large horizontal‐
1. horizontal-structure-type Fire curve follows
1. structure‐type fur‐ [26]
[26]
ISO 834
furnace nace Duration of
150 min and 160 min
heating phase
Duration of heating phase 150 min and 160 min

Width top beam:
406.4 mm
Size
Width top beam:
Width bottom beam:
Vertical fire test fur‐
Size
2.
nace 406.4 mm 304.8 mm [27]
Standard ASTM E119
Width
Duration of
bottom beam:
304.8 mm 90 min
heating phase
2. Vertical fire test furnace Standard [27]

ASTM E119
Duration of heating phase 90 min
Size Hight of all four columns: 1.7 m

Structural fire test‐ Standard ASTM E119
3. [28]
ing furnace Duration of
90 min and 120 min
heating phase
Fire 2023, 6, 5 16 of 35
Table 8. Cont.
Size Hight of all four columns: 1.7 m
3. Structural fire testing furnace Standard ASTM E119 [28]
Duration of heating phase 90 min and 120 min

4. Internal
Column fire furnace hot zone:
Size
Internal hot zone: 2 m × 1 m × 1
[29]
4. Column fire furnace Size m [29]
2m×1m×1m
Fire 2023, 6, 5 17 of 35
Table 8. Cont. Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 42
Small‐scale fire‐
Fire curve fol‐
Small-scale fireproof 5. proof testing fur‐ fire‐
Small‐scale ISO 834 [30]
Fire curve fol‐
lows
5. 5.Firenace
curvetesting
proof follows
fur‐ ISO 834
ISO 834 [30] [30]
testing furnace lows
nace
Size Size 0.5 m0.5

× 0.5 m × 0.5 m
m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m
Size 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m
Vulcan fire-resistance Vulcan fire‐re‐

Vulcan fire‐re‐
6. 6. 6. [31][31][31]
test furnace sistance sistance test furnace
test furnace Standard
Standard BS 476
BS 476
Standard BS 476
Fire curve fol‐

7. Large‐scale furnace
Fire curve fol‐ ISO 834 [32]
7. Large‐scale furnace lows ISO 834 [32]
lows
Fire 2023, 6, 5 18 of 35

Table 8. Cont.
7. Large-scale furnace Fire curve follows ISO 834 [32]
Max furnace
8. Large‐size furnace 1300 °C [33]
temp.
8. Large-size furnace Max furnace temp. 1300 ◦ C [33]
Custom‐designed
Fire curve fol‐
9. fire‐resistance test ISO 834 [34]
lows
furnace
Fire 2023, 6, 5 19 of 35
Cont.
Table 8.Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 42
Custom-designed
9. Fire curve follows ISO 834 [34]
fire-resistance test furnace
10. Fire test furnace 10. Standard

Fire test furnace StandardCAN/ULC-S101-14
CAN/ULC‐S101‐14 [35] [35]
Size 5m×3m
Fire curve follows ISO 834
Horizontal fire test

11. [36]
furnace
Fire 2023, 6, 5 20 of 35
Table 8. Cont.
Size 5m×3m
11. Horizontal fire test furnace [36]
Fire curve follows ISO 834
Internal chamber: 3 m × 3
12. Size [37]
m × 1.3 m
Fire 2023, 6, 5 21 of 35
Table 8. Cont.
S. No. Furnace Specifications

Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW Schematics 27 of 42 Ref.
Size Internal chamber:

3 m × 3 m × 1.3 m
Large-scale vertical Large‐scale vertical

12. fire‐resistance test Standard
BS476 Parts 20–24 [37]
fire-resistance test furnace furnace
EN1363
Standard BS476 Parts 20–24

EN1363
Horizontal fire‐re‐ Internal chamber: 3 m × 4

13. Size [37]
sistance test furnace m×1m
Fire 2023, 6, 5 22 of 35
Table 8. Cont.
S. No. Furnace Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Specifications Schematics Ref.
28 of
28 of 42
42
Size Internal chamber:

3m×4m×1m
Horizontal fire-resistance
13. BS476 [37]
test furnace BS476Parts
Parts20–24
20–24
Standards
Standards
EN1363
EN1363
Standards BS476 Parts 20–24

EN1363
Indicative fire‐re‐
Internal chamber:
Internal chamber: 1 m × 1
Indicative fire-resistance test
14. 14.Indicative
Size
sistancefire‐re‐
test furnace
Size 1 m × Internal
1 m ×mchamber:
1 ×m,
1 m,
and 1m×1
and [39] [39]
furnace 14. Size 1.5mm××11.5
m,m and
× 1.5 m [39]
sistance test furnace 1.5 m × 1.5 m × 1.5 m
1.5 m × 1.5 m × 1.5 m
Fire 2023, 6, 5 23 of 35
Table 8. Cont. Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 42
AS1530.4, BS476 Parts

AS1530.4, BS476 Parts 20–24,
Large structural fire Large structural fire 20–24,
15. 15. Standards
test furnace
ISO 834, ISOISO
Standards 3008, ISO 3009,
834, ISO 3008, ISO
[40] [40]
test furnace
and ASTM E119
3009, and ASTM E119
Fire 2023, 6, 5 24 of 35
5.5.Non‐Standard/Ad
Non-Standard/Ad Hoc
HocFire‐Resistance
Fire-ResistanceTesting TestingSetup SetupUsedUsedby byResearchers
Researchers
InIngeneral,
general, the standard fire testing procedures are used to illustratethe
the standard fire testing procedures are used to illustrate theresponse
responseofof
building elements in fire. However, the simplified one element
building elements in fire. However, the simplified one element tests on isolated tests on isolated structural
structural
members subjected to unrealistic time–temperature curve have
members subjected to unrealistic time–temperature curve have many limitations. Therefore, many limitations. There‐
fore, ad
ad hoc non-standard fire tests, by means of real fire rather than standard fire, werewere
hoc non‐standard fire tests, by means of real fire rather than standard fire, intro-
introduced. Non‐standard
duced. Non-standard firefire tests
tests havehave identifiedmany
identified manyinadequacies
inadequaciesininbuilding
buildingbehavior
behav‐
ior thatcould
that couldnot nothave
havebeenbeendetected
detected through
through standard
standard furnace
furnace tests.
tests.TheThemain
maincriticisms
criticisms
standard
standardfire‐resistance
fire-resistancetests testsinclude:
include:(1)(1) standard
standard temperature–time
temperature–time curve
curve is is
substantially
substantially
impractical
impracticaland andcontradicts
contradictsavailable
available knowledge
knowledge of of fire
fire behavior;
behavior;(2) (2)the
themandatory
mandatoryperiod pe‐
riod of fire exposure in the standard fire test is open to disparagement
of fire exposure in the standard fire test is open to disparagement on many basis and needs on many basis and
needs
to beto be revisited;
revisited; and (3)and end(3)condition
end condition and loading
and loading are notarewell
notdefined
well defined
in thein the stand‐
standard test–
ard
and test–and
evidentlyevidently
cannotcannot characterize
characterize the restraint
the restraint continuity,
continuity, membranes
membranes and redis‐
and redistribution
tribution
actions in actions in real structure.
real structure. Thus, the use Thus, the use of knowledge‐based
of knowledge-based analyticalshould
analytical approaches ap‐
proaches
be promoted.should be promoted.
The
Theliterature
literatureononfire‐resistance
fire-resistancetestingtestingofofconstruction
constructionelements
elementsisiswidewideand andauthors
authors
frequently modify their experiments
frequently modify their experiments based on their requirements. This section
on their requirements. This section summarizes summa‐
rizes studies
studies selected
selected based based on uniqueness
on uniqueness of their
of their non‐standard
non-standard or modified
or modified standard standard
testing
testing procedures.
procedures. Ramirez Ramirez et al. conducted
et al. conducted fire‐resistance
fire-resistance testing on testing
cement onmortars
cementcontaining
mortars
mineral wool
containing recycled
mineral wool from construction
recycled from and destruction
construction andwaste. Fire-resistance
destruction waste. was deter-
Fire‐re‐
mined was
sistance according to modified
determined according IS R-834 and UNE-EN
to modified IS R‐834 1361-1 (2012), UNE-EN
and UNE‐EN 1363-2UNE‐
1361‐1 (2012), (2000),
ENand UNE-EN
1363‐2 (2000),1365-4
and standards.
UNE‐EN 1365‐4 A fire-resistance
standards.experiment was performed
A fire‐resistance experiment bywasfollowing
per‐
ISO TR-834 standard. The 40 × 40 × 160 mm specimens,
formed by following ISO TR‐834 standard. The 40×40×160 mm specimens, Figure 11a, Figure 11a, were directly exposed
to flames
were directlyaccomplished
exposed to aflames maximum temperature
accomplished of 700 ◦ C. temperature
a maximum The samples of were700positioned
°C. The
horizontally on a steel frame grill size 2
samples were positioned horizontally on of 1 m frame
a steel , as shown in Figure
grill size of 1 m211b. The samples
, as shown in Figure are
positioned
11b. The sampleson the aresteel grill so on
positioned thattheeach
steelcompound
grill so that has a sample
each compound in the hasinnermost
a sample and in
intermediate
the innermost and areaintermediate
farthest fromarea the farthest
fire. Thefrom fire was initiated
the fire. by spraying
The fire pinewood
was initiated by spray‐with
petrol for combustion [47]. The fire ignition method
ing pinewood with petrol for combustion [47]. The fire ignition method and maximum and maximum temperatures were
adjusted in the
temperatures were study to suitintheir
adjusted intended
the study objective.
to suit their intended objective.
(a) (b)
Figure 11.11.
Figure Fire‐resistance ofof
Fire-resistance cement mortars:
cement (a)(a)
mortars: specimens and
specimens (b)(b)
and fire
firetest.
test.
Stefan
Stefanetetal.al.directed
directeda afire
firetest
testononcementitious
cementitiouscomposites
compositestotomeasuremeasurethe thethermal
thermal
performance, residual strength, and tendency of spalling based on
performance, residual strength, and tendency of spalling based on ISO 834 fire testing ISO 834 fire testing
standards.
standards. Blocks
Blocks were positioned
were positioned in ainfurnace and and
a furnace exposed
exposedto fire.
to The
fire. fire
Thetest was
fire testper‐
was
formed in a vertical
performed test test
in a vertical furnace, as shown
furnace, in Figure
as shown 12. 12.
in Figure After a one‐day
After a one-day cooling
cooling period,
period,
the
theheated
heatedblocks
blockswere werenoted
notedand andweighed
weighedanother
anothertimetimeand andthen
thentested
testedinina ahydraulic
hydraulic
press.
press.AAtwo‐pyramid
two-pyramidfailure failuremode
modewas wasexperienced.
experienced.One One face ofofthe
face thetest
testspecimen
specimenwas was
heatedfor
heated forupuptoto120120min
minand
andthenthencooled
cooledforfor1 1day.
day.After
Aftercooling,
cooling,thethethermal
thermalbehavior
behavior
and weight were determined. The heating of one face of the specimen may work well for
certain fire situations, such as the ones considered in this study [48].
Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEWFire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 28 of 39
Fire 2023, 6, 5 25 of 35
and weight were determined. andThe heating
weight wereofdetermined.
one face of the
Thespecimen
heating ofmay
onework well
face of thefor
specimen
certain fire situations, suchcertain
as the ones consideredsuch
fire situations, in this study
as the [48].
ones considered in this study [48].
(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Fire
Fire test
test on
on cementitious
cementitious composites:
Figurecomposites: (a)
12. Fire test(a) furnace,
onfurnace, , and(b)
cementitious
and (b)heating
heatingside.
composites: side.
(a) furnace, , and (b) heating s
Shah
Shah etet al.
al. conducted a fire-resistance
fire‐resistance test
test on
Shah et al. conductedon confined
confined concrete
concrete columns.
a fire‐resistance columns. The
The testing
test on confinedtesting
concrete co
furnace
furnace (Figure
(Figure 13) 13) was
was customized
customized to develop
furnace (Figure the customized
13) was temperaturetoshape as per
develop thethe ISO 834. shape
temperature
To
Tomonitor
monitorthethefour
fourburners
burners Toand
and the
the fire
monitor fire exposure,
theexposure, at
at least
four burners least
and five
theviewpoints
five viewpoints were
fire exposure, at available
were available
least five viewpo
on furnace wall.
on furnace wall. The exterior size of the furnace was
on furnace wall. The exterior size 2.5 × 1.5 ×
× 1.5of× the1.5 m. The
1.5 furnace furnace
m. The furnace
was 2.5 had×had
1.5a× 1.5 m.
acentral‐opening
central-openingsquare‐plan
square-plan size of 400
size of 400 × 400
central‐opening × 400 mm. The
mm. The size
square‐plan column
column length
length
of 400 × 400waswas
mm.4 m,4 m,
Thewith with
an length
column
an exposed
exposed length
length of 2ofm.2 A
m.hydraulic
A hydraulic
exposed jack
lengthjackofof2 m.
300-ton
of 300‐ton A capacity
capacity
hydraulic wasjackwas
also also involved
ofinvolved
300‐ton in theinload‐
capacity the
was also in
loading
ing frameframe for columns’
for columns’ loading
loading
ing underunder
frame compression
compression
for columns’ to suitto
loading suitrequirements.
their
under their requirements.
compression The The requirem
furnace
to suit their
furnace
was usedwas toused
test tothetest the
columns
wascolumns
with to
used withtestdifferent
different thesupportsupport
columns conditions,
conditions,
with including
including
different support fixed
fixedconditions,
and in
and hinged and under
hinged and under concentric concentric and eccentric
and eccentric
hinged and under loadsloads
[2].
concentric[2]. and eccentric loads [2].
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Confined-concrete-column
Confined‐concrete‐column fire‐resistance
Figure 13. test.
Confined‐concrete‐column
fire-resistance test. fire‐resistance test.
Sarker et al. conducted a fire durability test on steel-reinforced fly-ash geopolymer

concrete elements. The specimens, after 28 days of casting, were exposed to fire. Figure 14a
presents a test panel placed in the furnace. One of the faces of the panel was exposed
to fire, and the opposite side of the face remained at room temperature. This situation
Fire 2023, 6, 5 26 of 35
Sarker et al. conducted a fire durability test on steel‐reinforced fly‐ash geopolymer
concrete elements. The specimens, after 28 days of casting, were exposed to fire. Figure
14a presents a test panel placed in the furnace. One of the faces of the panel was exposed
of heating is considered the most serious, as it causes differential temperatures between
to fire, and the opposite side of the face remained at room temperature. This situation of
the unheated and heated
heating is considered thefaces. The controlled
most serious, as it causesfire based on
differential ISO 834 was
temperatures recommended.
between the
The unheated
air temperatures
and heated faces. The controlled fire based on ISO 834 was recommended. The side of
inside the furnace and at 25 mm in depth from the unheated
the test panel wereinside
air temperatures recorded by inbuilt
the furnace and atthermocouples sensor.
25 mm in depth from the A thermocouple
unheated side of thewas also
test panel
inserted were recorded
in samples by inbuilt
at the time thermocouples
of casting. sensor. heating
The furnace A thermocouple was also in‐after two
was terminated
hoursserted in samplesheating,
of specimen at the time
andofthe
casting. The furnace
samples heating
were left wasdown
to cool terminated aftertemperature
at room two
hours of specimen heating, and the samples were left to cool down at room temperature
by leaving the door of the furnace open. After cooling down, the compression test was
by leaving the door of the furnace open. After cooling down, the compression test was
performed on the specimen by using a universal testing machine (Figure 14b) [49].
performed on the specimen by using a universal testing machine (Figure 14b) [49].
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Fire‐resistance testing on steel‐reinforced fly‐ash geopolymer concrete: (a) concrete test
Figure 14. Fire-resistance testing on steel-reinforced fly-ash geopolymer concrete: (a) concrete test
panel and (b) post‐fire compression test setup.
panel and (b) post-fire compression test setup.
Vedrtnam et al. conducted an ad hoc fire‐resistance test of transparent and tinted
Vedrtnam
glass et al.
(see Figure 15).conducted
The apparatusan was
ad hoc fire-resistance
accumulated by a casttest
ironof transparent
burner and a setand
of tinted
glassaluminum
(see Figure 15).One
plates. The apparatus
side was
of the setup wasaccumulated
prepared with by six a cast iron
vertical burner
plates. and a set of
Each plate
was composed
aluminum plates. by
One twoside
aluminum plates with
of the setup was aprepared
gap of 11 with
mm between them.plates.
six vertical The glass
Each plate
was panels
composedhad sufficient
by twospace around them
aluminum platesto enlarge
with afreely
gap ofat the
11 time
mmofbetween
the fire experience.
them. The glass
These
panels hadplates had regular
sufficient spaceend supports
around themprovided by thefreely
to enlarge window frames
at the time[12].
of the fire experience.
These plates had regular end supports provided by the window frames [12].
Figure 15. Specialized fire test setup (1) burner, (2) box lateral wall, (3) lateral wall, (4) black wall,
(5) top cover and slots. and (6) samples.
Chen et al. conducted a fire‐resistance test to measure the performance of recycled
glass composites. A specially designed furnace (Figure 16) based on BS 476 part‐22 was
used to assess the integrity, residual strength, and thermal conductivity of test specimens.
All samples were dried for 72 h at 80 °C before the fire test, and then the samples were
fixed mechanically on the furnace face opening (size 315 × 165 mm). One face of the panel
was bare to high temperatures. To avoid heat leakage between the panel specimen and
the furnace, a thermal‐insulation mat was provided. To measure the furnace temperature,
Fire 2023, 6, 5 27 of 35
Chen
Chen etetal.
al. conducted
conducted aa fire-resistance
fire‐resistance test
test totomeasure
measurethetheperformance
performance of ofrecycled
recycled
glass
glass composites. A specially designed furnace (Figure 16) based on BS 476 part‐22was
composites. A specially designed furnace (Figure 16) based on BS 476 part-22 was
used
usedtotoassess
assessthe
the integrity,
integrity,residual
residualstrength,
strength,andandthermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity of of test
test specimens.
specimens.
All ◦ C before the fire test, and then the samples were
Allsamples
sampleswere
weredrieddriedfor
for72
72hhatat80
80 °C before the fire test, and then the samples were
fixed
fixed mechanically on the furnace face opening(size
mechanically on the furnace face opening 315××165
(size315 165mm).
mm). One
Oneface
faceof ofthe
thepanel
panel
was
was bare to high temperatures. To avoid heat leakage between the panel specimenand
bare to high temperatures. To avoid heat leakage between the panel specimen and
the
thefurnace,
furnace,aathermal-insulation
thermal‐insulationmat mat was
was provided.
provided. To To measure
measure the
the furnace
furnace temperature,
temperature,
S-type
S‐typethermocouples
thermocoupleswere wereinstalled inin
installed thethe
furnace.
furnace. To To
measure the the
measure temperature
temperature rise rise
of the
of
unexposed side of the specimen, K-types (five in numbers) were installed
the unexposed side of the specimen, K‐types (five in numbers) were installed on the un‐on the unexposed
side of theside
exposed panel samples
of the panel[50].
samples [50].
Figure16.
Figure 16.Specially
Speciallydesigned
designedfurnace
furnaceand
andspecimen
specimeninstallation
installationfor
forlab-scale
lab‐scalefire
firetest.
test.
Maier et
Maier etal.
al. investigated
investigated thethe effect
effect of
of concrete
concrete properties
properties such
suchas aspenetrability
penetrability andand
ecologicalconditions
ecological conditions(water
(watercontent)
content)on onthe
thespalling
spallingbehavior
behaviorof ofconcrete
concreteexposed
exposedunder
under
the fire.
the fire. An
Aninnovative
innovativetwo‐compartment
two-compartment firefire
furnace
furnace(Figure 17),17),
(Figure consisting of four
consisting of main
four
main
partsparts (combustion
(combustion chamber,
chamber, oil burner,
oil burner, temperature-control
temperature‐control unit,unit,
and and test chamber),
test chamber), was
Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW was developed.
developed. The
The oil oil burner
burner is located
is located at thewall
at the front front
of wall of the furnace
the furnace 31 com‐
and provides
and provides the of 39
the combustion compartment ◦ C. This compartment
bustion compartment to reach to reach temperatures
temperatures up to 1400 up°C.
toThis
1400compartment assists as a
assists
temperature tank and is coupled to the temperature‐control unit. This unitThis
as a temperature tank and is coupled to the temperature-control unit. unit
permits
permits
programmedprogrammed and precise
and precise control
control of heat
of heat fluxflux into
into the(adjacent)
the (adjacent) test
test compartment
compartment
(1400 × 500 × 400 3 ). The burner capacity and thermal flux were adjusted by using a
mmThe
(1400×500×400 mm3). burner capacity and thermal flux were adjusted by using a tem‐
temperature-control
perature‐control unitunit andand K-type
K‐type thermocouples,
thermocouples, respectively
respectively [51].
[51].
Figure 17.
Figure 17. Two-chamber
Two‐chamberfire
firefurnace
furnace(dimensions
(dimensionsin
incm).
cm).
Park et
Park et al.
al. conducted
conducted anan investigational
investigational study
study on
on fire
fire sources
sources for
for full-scale
full‐scale fire
fire testing
testing
of aa simple
of simple sprinkler
sprinkler system
system fitted
fitted in
in complexes.
complexes. A
A sofa
sofa model
model was
was used
used to
to measure
measure the the
effectiveness of fire‐resistance performance of the sprinkler. The fire‐resistance perfor‐
mance was compared to assess the fire‐control capability the when water pressure was
not sufficient [52]. Similarly, Lafrance et al. performed a large‐scale fire‐resistance test for
wall assembly use in mid‐rise buildings. In that study, a large‐scale furnace test was per‐
formed to measure the fire endurance period for a light wood frame assembly. The wall
Figure 17. Two‐chamber fire furnace (dimensions in cm).
Park et al. conducted an investigational study on fire sources for full‐sc

Fire 2023, 6, 5 of a simple sprinkler system fitted in complexes. A sofa model28was of 35 used t
effectiveness of fire‐resistance performance of the sprinkler. The fire‐resi

mance was compared to assess the fire‐control capability the when water
effectiveness of fire-resistance performance of the sprinkler. The fire-resistance performance
notcompared
was sufficient [52]. Similarly,
to assess the fire-controlLafrance
capabilityet
theal. performed
when a large‐scale
water pressure was not suf-fire‐res
ficient [52]. Similarly, Lafrance et al. performed a large-scale fire-resistance
wall assembly use in mid‐rise buildings. In that study, a large‐scale test for wall furnac
assembly use in mid-rise buildings. In that study, a large-scale furnace test was performed
formed to measure the fire endurance period for a light wood frame assem
to measure the fire endurance period for a light wood frame assembly. The wall furnace
furnace
that was usedthat wastest
in that used in that
is shown test is
in Figure 18 shown
[53]. in Figure 18 [53].
Figure
Figure 18.18.
WallWall furnace
furnace used forused forfire-resistance
full-scale full‐scale fire‐resistance
test. test.
Sultan et al. compared the heat-exposure test results in full- and intermediate-scale
Sultantest
fire-resistance et furnaces.
al. compared the
The effects heat‐exposure
of furnace orientation test resultssize
and furnace inonfull‐ and inte
the fire
fire‐resistance test furnaces. The effects of furnace orientation and furnace
exposure were discussed. The results determined that the heat exposure in the intermediate-
Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW scale furnace is higher than that of the full-scale fire-resistance testing furnace. The full-scale
32 of 39
exposure were discussed. The results determined that the heat exposure in
and intermediate-scale floor testing furnaces are shown in Figure 19a,b [54].
ate‐scale furnace is higher than that of the full‐scale fire‐resistance testing
full‐scale and intermediate‐scale floor testing furnaces are shown in Figure
(a) (b)
Figure19.
Figure 19.(a)
(a)Full-scale
Full‐scalefloor
floorfurnace
furnaceand
and(b)
(b)intermediate-scale
intermediate‐scale floor
floor furnace.
furnace.
Nassifetetal.al.presented
Nassif presentedthe theexperimental
experimentalobservations
observationsandandoutcomes
outcomesofofa afull-scale
full‐scale
fire‐resistance
fire-resistance test
test onona apartition
partitionwall.
wall.The
Thepartition
partitionwall
wallwas
wasbuilt
builtwithin
withina aconcrete
concreteframe
frame
andexposed
and exposedtotothe thestandard
standardfire firetest.
test.The
Thepartition
partitionwall
wallwas
wasmade
madewith
withC-section
C‐sectionsteel
steel
studs,with
studs, withgypsum
gypsumboards boardsfixed
fixedon onboth
bothsides,
sides,and
andthe
thewall
wallcraters
craterswere
werefilled
filledwith
withrock
rock
wool insulation. It was observed that the full‐scale fire‐resistance test gives detailed ther‐
mal profiling throughout the partition wall. The setup for the large‐scale fire‐resistance
test of the partition wall utilized in the study is shown in Figure 20 [55].
Figure 19. (a) Full‐scale floor furnace and (b) intermediate‐scale floor furnace.
Nassif et al. presented the experimental observations and outcomes of a full‐scal

Fire 2023, 6, 5 fire‐resistance test on a partition wall. The partition wall was built within a concrete 29 of 35 fram
and exposed to the standard fire test. The partition wall was made with C‐section stee
studs, with gypsum boards fixed on both sides, and the wall craters were filled with rock
wool insulation.
wool insulation. It was
It was observed
observed that
that the the full‐scale
full-scale fire‐resistance
fire-resistance test gives test gives
detailed detailed ther
thermal
mal profiling
profiling throughout
throughout the partition
the partition wall. for
wall. The setup Thethe
setup for the
large-scale large‐scale test
fire-resistance fire‐resistanc
of
test of the partition wall utilized in the study is shown in Figure 20 [55].
the partition wall utilized in the study is shown in Figure 20 [55].
Figure20.
Figure 20.The
The full‐scale
full-scale standard
standard fire‐resistance‐test
fire-resistance-test setup
setup of of the partition
the partition wall. wall.
Hidalgo
Hidalgoet etal.al.
presented
presented an investigational
an investigational studystudy
considering full-scale
considering open-floor-
full‐scale open‐floor
plan
plan enclosure fires. In the research, a large‐scale investigational sequence wastoassumed
enclosure fires. In the research, a large-scale investigational sequence was assumed
create a complete data set to illustrate fire in large open-plan spaces, typical of tall buildings
to create a complete data set to illustrate fire in large open‐plan spaces, typical of tal
and contemporary infrastructure [56]. Bisby et al. prepared a review covering the non-
buildings and contemporary infrastructure [56]. Bisby et al. prepared a review covering
standard fire-resistance testing methods used by researchers to characterize the response of
the non‐standard
structural material infire‐resistance
fire [7]. Gale ettesting methods
al. conferred the used by researchers
backgrounds to characterize
of the standard fire- th
responsetest,
resistance of structural
the boundariesmaterial
withininthefire
fire[7]. Gale
testing et al. conferred
or design, the of
the difficulties backgrounds
the results of th
standard fire‐resistance test, the boundaries within the fire testing or
of the real fire in buildings, and the consequential research gap that currently exist [57]. design, the difficul
ties ofetthe
Zhang results ofathe
al. presented real with
scheme fire in
an buildings,
ASTM E 119and the consequential
fire environment research
in a large section gap tha
(size 10 m wide,
currently exist 7[57].
m depth,
Zhang andet3.8
al.m height), using
presented the designed
a scheme with anfire constraints,
ASTM E 119 including
fire environmen
opening condition
in a large section(size and
(size 10configuration)
m wide, 7 mand heat and
depth, release
3.8rate (HRR) curve
m height), to conduct
using a
the designed fir
full-scale test. The mean upper layer of the gas-temperature curve followed the E119 fire
curve. The highest variance among the E119 and the measured curve towards the end of
the test was around 70 ◦ C (7%). The investigation specifies that, through proper control
and design, the temperature–time curve for the standard fire testing may be approximated
in a real section [58].
Rodrigues et al. reported the behavior of square and circular reinforced-concrete
columns with restrained thermal elongation exposed to fire. The spalling phenomenon was
observed from the fire test results in both columns. The restraining level of the reinforced-
concrete column against thermal elongation may not affect the performance of the columns
and is irrelevant to their fire resistance. The experimental fire-resistance-test setup on
columns is shown in Figure 21 [59].
that, through proper control and design, the temperature–time curve for the standard fire
testing may be approximated in a real section [58].
Rodrigues et al. reported the behavior of square and circular reinforced‐concrete
columns with restrained thermal elongation exposed to fire. The spalling phenomenon
was observed from the fire test results in both columns. The restraining level of the rein‐
Fire 2023, 6, 5 forced‐concrete column against thermal elongation may not affect the performance of the 30 of 35
columns and is irrelevant to their fire resistance. The experimental fire‐resistance‐test
setup on columns is shown in Figure 21 [59].
Figure 21.
Figure 21. The
Thefire‐resistance‐test
fire-resistance-testsetup on columns.
setup on columns.
Similarly, Magarabooshanam
Similarly, Magarabooshanam et al. investigated
et al. the load‐bearing
investigated performance
the load-bearing of
performance of
double‐stud light‐gauge steel‐frame walls exposed to fire. The full‐scale fire‐test setup
double-stud light-gauge steel-frame walls exposed to fire. The full-scale fire-test setup
(Figure 22) was developed to predict the failure times of double‐stud light‐gauge‐steel‐
(Figure 22) was developed to predict the failure times of double-stud light-gauge-steel-
frame walls in fire, using the direct strength method. The results revealed that, in the dou‐
frame walls in fire, using the direct strength method. The results revealed
ble‐stud light‐gauge‐steel‐frame walls, the fire performance was enhanced because
that, in the
Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 34 of
of the
39
double-stud light-gauge-steel-frame
unique heat‐transfer mechanism [60]. walls, the fire performance was enhanced because of
the unique heat-transfer mechanism [60].
Figure
Figure22.
22.The
Thefull‐scale fire‐resistance‐test
full-scale setup:setup:
fire-resistance-test (a) furnace, and (b) and
(a) furnace, test panel.
(b) test panel.
Researchers and regulating communities have confronted several problems in regard

to characterizing building and construction elements with standard fire‐resistance tests.
Thus, large‐scale fire‐resistance testing has experienced momentum compared to stand‐
ard fire‐resistance testing. The non‐standard fire‐resistance test has been performed prom‐
inently during the last three decades to address critical aspects, as discussed before, dur‐
Fire 2023, 6, 5 31 of 35
Researchers and regulating communities have confronted several problems in regard

to characterizing building and construction elements with standard fire-resistance tests.
Thus, large-scale fire-resistance testing has experienced momentum compared to standard
fire-resistance testing. The non-standard fire-resistance test has been performed promi-
nently during the last three decades to address critical aspects, as discussed before, during
actual fires; in general, these critical aspects could not have been identified by the standard
fire-resistance test. Non-standard fire-resistance tests of actual fire in real construction
buildings are listed in Table 9.
Table 9. Notable non-standard fire-resistance tests of real fires in real buildings [7].
S. No. Non-Standard Fire-Resistance Test of Real Fires in Real Buildings Institute that Performed Tests
Test conducted to evaluate the broad behavior composite frame structures of steel
National Building Standards and
1 concrete and validating FASBUS II (a computer model) for structural resistance
American Iron and Steel Institute
to fire.
Test performed on water-and-concrete-filled columns with composite steel Stuttgart-Vaihingen
2
concrete structure. Timber cribs used for fire exposure. University, Germany,
Test conducted on a compartment of steel concrete composite frame (size 4 × 4 m).
3 Office furniture was used for fire exposure. This test established the use of a William Street Australia
sprinkler system to avoid collapse.
Test performed on steel concrete composite frame (size 8.4 × 3.6 m). office
4 Collins Street Test
furniture was used for fire exposure.
Six different structural fire tests conducted on eight-story steel concrete
composite frame.
Test-1: Gas furnace used for fire exposure on restrained floor beam of specimen
(size 9 m). This test measured the tensile failure of connections at the time
of cooling.
Test-2: Gas furnace used for fire exposure on long pane frame of 21 m. The test
reported the local buckling and shear breakdown of bolts during cooling.
Test-3: Timber cribs used for fire exposure on floor compartment (size 9 × 6 m). BRE Cardington Steel
5
Membrane action and load path changes were measured in this test. Building Tests
Test-4: Timber cribs used for fire exposure on floor compartment (size 9 × 6 m).
Interaction between non-exposed and exposed structures were reported.
Test-5: Timber cribs used for fire exposure on large section (size 18 × 21 m);
connection failure was observed during cooling.
Test-6: Office furniture was used for fire exposure on a floor section (size 162 m2 ).
Steel lattice lap fault during structure; cracking around columns established
during cooling.
The test reported the membrane actions of unprotected composite steel concrete
6 frame (size 16 × 32 m) when it exposed to the fire resulted from burning of 3 cars Car Park Fire Tests
in a closed parking space.
The comprehensive behavior was reported for timber frame structure of
compartment (size 24.1 × 12.4 m) when it was exposed to fire initiated by timber
7 Cardington, United Kingdom
cribs. The author also reported the fire potentially spread to the
connecting compartment.
The test reported the membrane action and spalling of floor size (2 × 2 bays,
8 Cardington, United Kingdom
225 m2 ) when exposed to fire initiated by timber cribs.
The test reported the development of fire, burning and cooling stages in concrete
9 frame structure (size 12 × 12 m) when exposed to fire initiated by Cardington, United Kingdom
timber/plastic cribs.
The test reported the effect of fire (initiated by timber cribs) on a large section of a
Czech Technical University,
10 composite structure (size 11 × 7 m). The structure was loaded to 56% of its
Cardington, United Kingdom
room-temperature capacity. Cracks were observed at column heads.
Fire 2023, 6, 5 32 of 35
Table 9. Cont.
S. No. Non-Standard Fire-Resistance Test of Real Fires in Real Buildings Institute that Performed Tests
The test was performed on a structure (size 3.8 × 6 m) with a fire initiated by
11 timber cribs. The test reported the gas and steel temperature irrespective of CTU, Ostrava, Czech Republic
structural damage.
The test reported the tensile cracking and connection breakdown at time of cooling
12 when composite frame (size 2 × 3.6 × 3.6 m) bays exposed to fire generated by Harbin Institute of Technology
four oil fired burners.
The test reported the behavior of properly designed and detailed building when
13 BRE, United Kingdom
exposed under the fire initiated by timber cribs.
The test reported the behavior of structure associated with different components
14 (size 12 × 18 m) when exposed to fire initiated by timber cribs. The test reported CTU, Mokrsko, Czech Republic
the several local failure modes, using a variation of composition.
The test reported the insulation integrity failure because of improper mesh
15 lapping of structure if experience to fire initiated at the corner of building FRACOF, Metz, France
compartment. A gas furnace was used for the test.
The test reported the flexural breakdown of beam when exposed to the fire
16 COSSFIRE, Metz, France
initiated at the corner of the building compartment.
The test reported the spalling and associated protection of concrete columns when Hong Kong Polytechnic
17
exposed to the fire initiated by ethanol pool fire. University, China
The test reported the spalling in columns when exposed to fire developed by
18 timber cribs, along with a few structural design aspects related to CCAA-CESARE, Australia
polypropylene fibers.
The test performed to measure the membrane action on a concrete steel composite University of Ulster, United
19
frame (sized 15 × 9 m) when exposed under the timber cribs fire. Kingdom
The test conducted on concrete steel composite (size 5 × 12.5 m). Insufficient
20 TU, Munich, Germany
information is available to describe testing procedure of this test.
The test reported the behavior of reinforced concrete frame support when
21 experienced to fire initiated by gas burner and also reported the advantages of TU, Vienna, Austria
using polypropylene fiber to reduce spalling in structural development.
The test reported the kerosene pool fire effect on post-earthquake University of Edinburgh/IIT
22
reinforced-concrete structure (size 9 × 12 m). Roorkee, India
6. Concluding Remarks
This article offers a comprehensive review and comparison of the fire-resistance test-
ing standards suggested by the regulatory bodies of different countries, such as the USA,
Britain, India, Japan, Australia, and China, as well as Europe. Moreover, the chronological
order of the historical development of fire-resistance testing procedures was mentioned
for the different fire testing standards developed by different countries. The detailed sum-
mary of ASTM, Australian, British, Chinese, DIN, European, Indian, ISO, and Japanese
fire-resistance testing standard given in the article should be useful for researchers for
designing their experiments. This review reflected that the Indian fire-resistance test-
ing standard by also following the old method of British fire testing standard (BS 476
part 8), which needs to be updated according to BS 476 part 20 to 23. The review concluded
that most of the country follows the British fire testing standard because it has separately
discussed the guidelines for every traditional construction material. The consideration of
fire-resistance testing requirements for advanced engineering materials in testing standards
is advocated by the present review.
In reality, the fire location, its intensity, and corresponding scenarios vary significantly,
and standard tests for isolated structural members may not efficiently portray the realistic
fire scenarios. Thus, researchers have utilized a variety of specialized setups and full-scale
non-standard fire tests that fulfil their research objectives. This article includes a summary
Fire 2023, 6, 5 33 of 35
of selected full-scale, ad hoc, and specialized setups reported in the literature. Additionally,
all fire-resistance testing standards are laboratory-based tests and are performed under
specified conditions through which it is hard to determine the most accurate fire-resistance
of construction elements because of the unpredictable nature of real fire. This review
highlights the requirement of periodic updates of standards for improving the reliability of
fire-resistance testing results.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.V. and S.C.; methodology, A.V.; formal analysis, A.V.;
investigation, S.C., A.V. and S.C.; resources, A.V. and S.C.; data curation, S.C., K.K. and A.V.; writing—
original draft preparation, S.C. and A.V.; writing—review and editing, M.A.Y. and A.V.; G.B., M.T.P.
visualization, A.V.; supervision, M.A.Y. and A.V., G.B., M.T.P.; project administration, M.T.P., M.A.Y.
and A.V.; funding acquisition, M.T.P., M.A.Y. and A.V. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This project received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and
Innovation Programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No 945478 (SASPRO2).
The content of this article does not reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Responsibility
for the information and views expressed herein lies entirely with the author(s).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The administrative support of SASPRO2 team is appreciated.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Invertis University, Bareilly 243001, UP, India

Citation: Chaturvedi, S.;

Fire 2023, 6, 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6010005 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fire

Table 1. Historical development of fire-resistance procedures.

Year Development [5,6]

2.2. Structure of the Review

3. Fire-Resistance Test Standards

Figure 1. Fire‐resistance‐test standards for building elements and structures.

Table 3. Fire-resistance standards for load-bearing construction elements.

Table 4. Fire-resistance standards for non-load-bearing construction elements.

Table 5. Fire-resistance test standard for some other miscellaneous tests.

3.1. Types of Furnaces in Different Fire-Resistance Test Standards

(c) (d) (e)

3.2. Specimen Size in Different Fire-Resistance Test Standards

(a) (b) (c)

3.5. Limitation in Different Fire-Resistance Test Standards

Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 42

Duration of heating phase 150 min and 160 min

2. Vertical fire test furnace Standard [27]

Duration of heating phase 90 min

Size Hight of all four columns: 1.7 m

Size Hight of all four columns: 1.7 m

3. Structural fire testing furnace Standard ASTM E119 [28]

Duration of heating phase 90 min and 120 min

Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 42

Table 8. Cont. Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 42

S. No. Furnace Specifications Schematics Ref.

Size Size 0.5 m0.5

Size 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m

Vulcan fire-resistance Vulcan fire‐re‐

Fire curve fol‐

Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 42

S. No. Furnace Specifications Schematics Ref.

7. Large-scale furnace Fire curve follows ISO 834 [32]

Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 42

8. Large-size furnace Max furnace temp. 1300 ◦ C [33]

S. No. Furnace Specifications Schematics Ref.

Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 42

10. Fire test furnace 10. Standard

Horizontal fire test

Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 42

S. No. Furnace Specifications Schematics Ref.

11. Horizontal fire test furnace [36]

Fire curve follows ISO 834

S. No. Furnace Specifications

Size Internal chamber:

Large-scale vertical Large‐scale vertical

Standard BS476 Parts 20–24

Horizontal fire‐re‐ Internal chamber: 3 m × 4

S. No. Furnace Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Size Internal chamber:

Standards BS476 Parts 20–24

Table 8. Cont. Fire 2022, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 42

S. No. Furnace Specifications Schematics Ref.

AS1530.4, BS476 Parts

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Sarker et al. conducted a fire durability test on steel-reinforced fly-ash geopolymer

Park et al. conducted an investigational study on fire sources for full‐sc

effectiveness of fire‐resistance performance of the sprinkler. The fire‐resi

Nassif et al. presented the experimental observations and outcomes of a full‐scal

Researchers and regulating communities have confronted several problems in regard

Researchers and regulating communities have confronted several problems in regard