Problem 1.3

/r/SpivakStudyGroup/xerxexrex Problem Set # 1 (1) Problem 1.
3
(1) Problem 1.3
Prove the following:
(i)
a
b
=
ac
bc
, if b, c = 0.
(ii)
a
b
+
c
d
=
ad + bc
bd
, if b, d = 0.
(iii) (ab)
1
= a
1
b
1
, if a, b = 0. (To do this you must remember the dening property of (ab)
1
.)
(iv)
a
b

c
d
=
ac
db
, if b, d = 0.
(v)
a
b
_
c
d
=
ad
bc
, if b, c, d = 0.
(vi) If b, d = 0, then
a
b
=
c
d
if and only if ad = bc. Also determine when
a
b
=
b
a
.
(i) Let a, b, c R with b, c = 0. Then bc = 0, so (bc)
1
exists such that (bc)(bc)
1
= 1. So,
a
b
= ab
1
= ab
1
1
= ab
1
(bc)(bc)
1
= a(b
1
b)c(bc)
1
= a 1 c(bc)
1
= ac(bc)
1
=
ac
bc
(ii) Let a, b, c, d R with b, d = 0. Then bd = 0, so (bd)
1
exists such that (bd)(bd)
1
= 1. So,
a
b
+
c
d
= ab
1
+ cd
1
= (ab
1
+ cd
1
) 1
= (ab
1
+ cd
1
)(bd)(bd)
1
= (ab
1
(bd) + cd
1
(bd))(bd)
1
(distributive law)
= (a(b
1
b)d + c(d
1
d)b)(bd)
1
(both comm. and assoc. laws)
= (a 1 d + c 1 b)(bd)
1
= (ad + bc)(bd)
1
=
ad + bc
bd
(1) Problem 1.3 continued on next page. . . Page 1 of 14
/r/SpivakStudyGroup/xerxexrex Problem Set # 1 (1) Problem 1.3 (continued)
(iii) Let a, b R with a, b = 0. Then
(ab)(a
1
b
1
) = (ab)(b
1
a
1
)
= a(bb
1
)a
1
= a 1 a
1
= aa
1
= 1
Commutativity of multiplication provides us with (a
1
b
1
)(ab) = 1. Therefore, (ab)
1
= a
1
b
1
.
(iv) Let a, b, c, d R with b, d = 0. Then
a
b

c
d
= (ab
1
)(cd
1
)
= ab
1
cd
1
1
= ab
1
cd
1
(db)(db)
1
= ab
1
c(d
1
d)b(db)
1
= ab
1
cb(db)
1
= ac(b
1
b)(db)
1
= ac(db)
1
=
ac
db
(v) Let a, b, c, d R with b, c, d = 0.
a
b
_
c
d
= ab
1
(cd
1
)
1
= ab
1
(cd
1
)
1
(bc)(bc)
1
= ab
1
(cd
1
)
1
(bcd
1
d)(bc)
1
= ab
1
(cd
1
)
1
(cd
1
)(bd)(bc)
1
= ab
1
bd(bc)
1
= ad(bc)
1
=
ad
bc
(vi) Let a, b, c, d R with b, d = 0. Then
a
b
=
c
d
ab
1
= cd
1
ab
1
bd = cd
1
bd
adb
1
b = bcd
1
d
ad 1 = bc 1
ad = bc
In particular,
a
b
=
b
a
a
2
= b
2
a
2
b
2
= 0
(a b)(a + b) = 0
a = b or a = b
Note that the identity established in (iii) simplies greatly the proofs of the other properties. For example,
consider again (iv):
a
b

c
d
= (ab
1
)(cd
1
)
= (ac)(b
1
d
1
)
= (ac)(db)
1
=
ac
db
Much less painful, to be sure. However, the proofs given demonstrate not only that those properties do not
require (iii) as stated, but also my stubbornness not to use it.
Page 3 of 14
/r/SpivakStudyGroup/xerxexrex Problem Set # 1 (2) Problem 1.5
(2) Problem 1.5
(i) If a d, then a c 0, then ac < bc.
(v) If a bc.
(vi) If a > 1, then a
2
> a.
(vii) If 0 < a < 1, then a
2
< a.
(viii) If 0 a < b and 0 c < d, then ac < bd.
(ix) If 0 a < b, then a
2
< b
2
. (Use (viii).)
(x) If a, b 0 and a
2
< b
2
, then a < b. (Use (ix), backwards.)
(i) Let a, b, c, d R such that a < b and c < d.
Then b a P and d c P, where P is the set of positive real numbers. Then (b a) +(d c) P.
So,
(b + d) (a + c) = b + d a c
= (b a) + (d c)
P (Closure of P under addition)
Hence a + c d. Then b a P and c d P. By closure of P under
addition, (b a) + (c d) P. After rearranging we have (b d) (a c) P. Thus a c 0. Then b a P. By closure under multiplication we have
c(b a) P. Now, c(b a) = cb ca = bc ac, and hence, ac < bc.
(v) Let a, b, c R such that a 0 and c > 0. So
ac bc = bc + ac
= c(b a)
P (Closure of P under multiplication)
Therefore, ac > bc.
(vi) Let a R with a > 1. Then a > 0, and, by (iv), aa > a 1, i.e. a
2
> a.
(vii) Let a R with 0 < a < 1. Then, by (iv), aa < a 1, i.e. a
2
< a.
(viii) Let a, b, c, d R such that 0 a 0
and c > 0. Then, by (iv), ac < bc and bc < bd. By transitivity of <, ac < bd.
(ix) Let a, b R with 0 a < b. Replacing c with a and d with b in (viii), we get a
2
< b
2
.
(x) Let a, b R such that a, b 0 and a
2
< b
2
. Then suppose a b. Then, by (ix), a
2
b
2
, a contradiction
with our assumption that a
2
< b
2
. Therefore a < b.
Page 5 of 14
(3) Problem 1.12
(i) |xy| = |x| |y|
(ii)
1
x
=
1
|x|
, if x = 0. (The best way to do this is to remember what |x|
1
is.)
(iii)
|x|
|y|
=
x
y
, if y = 0
(iv) |x y| |x| +|y| (Give a very short proof.)
(v) |x| |y| |x y| (A very short proof is possible, if you write things the right way.)
(vi) |(|x| |y|)| |x y| (Why does this follow immediately from (v)?)
(vii) |x + y + z| |x| +|y| +|z| Indicate when equality holds, and prove your statement.
(i) |xy| =
_
(xy)
2
=
_
x
2
y
2
=

x
2
_
y
2
= |x||y|. (This requires that for all non-negative a, b,

ab =
b. This follows from ab =

a
b = (
b)(
b) = (
b)
2
.)
(ii)
1
|x|
= |x|
1
=
_
x
2
_
1
=
_
x
(12)
=
_
(x
1
)
2
=
1
x
This proof assumes a bit about exponent laws. If were uncomfortable about this, we can use the
following alternate.
1
x
|x| =
1
x
x
= |1| = 1. Therefore
1
x
= |x|
1
=
1
|x|
.
(iii)
|x|
|y|
= |x|
1
|y|
= |x|
1
y
x
1
y
x
y
(iv) Via replacement of y with y, this is a direct corollary to the standard triangle inequality, so a very
short proof might be
|x y| = |x + (y)| |x| +| y| = |x| +|y|.
(v) Let x, y R. Then
|x| |y| = |x y + y| |y|
|x y| +|y| |y|
= |x y|
(vi) We can switch the places of x and y in (v), providing us with |y| |x| |y x| = |x y|. Since
|y| |x| = (|x| |y|), we have |(|x| |y|)| |x y|.
(vii) The proof for this is very similar to that of the two term triangle inequality.
(x + y + z)
2
= x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
+ 2xy + 2xz + 2yz
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
+ 2|x||y| + 2|x||z| + 2|y||z|
= (|x| +|y| +|z|)
2
Hence, |x + y + z| |x| +|y| +|z|.
Now, this proof reveals that equality holds if and only if the pairwise products of x, y, and z are
non-negative, that is, if and only if xy 0, xz 0, and yz 0. Put yet another way, equality holds if
and only if all non-zero terms are the same sign.
Explicitly, equality holds i
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
+ 2xy + 2xz + 2yz = x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
+ 2|x||y| + 2|x||z| + 2|y||z|
xy + xz + yz = |xy| +|xz| +|yz|
xy = |xy|, xz = |xz|, and yz = |yz|
xy 0, xz 0, and yz 0
Page 7 of 14
(4) Problem 1.19
The fact that a
2
0 for all numbers a, elementary as it may seem, is nevertheless the fundamental idea
upon which most important inequalities are ultimately based. The great-grandaddy of all inequalities is the
Schwarz inequality:
x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2

_
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
.
(A more general form occurs in Problem 2-21.) The three proofs of the Schwarz inequality outlined below
have only one thing in common their reliance on the fact that a
2
0 for all a.
(a) Prove that if x
1
= y
1
and x
2
= y
2
for some number , then equality holds in the Schwarz inequality.
Prove the same thing if y
1
= y
2
= 0. Now suppose that y
1
and y
2
are not both 0, and there is no
number such that x
1
= y
1
and x
2
= y
2
. Then
0 < (y
1
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
x
2
)
2
=
2
(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
) 2(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
) + (x
1
2
+ x
2
2
).
Using Problem 18, complete the proof of the Schwarz inequality.
(b) Prove the Schwarz inequality by using 2xy x
2
+ y
2
(how is this derived?) with
x =
x
i
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
, y =
y
i
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
,
rst for i = 1 and then for i = 2.
(c) Prove the Schwarz inequality by rst proving that
(x
1
2
+ x
2
2
)(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
) = (x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
+ (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
.
(d) Deduce, from each of these three proofs, that equality holds only when y
1
= y
2
= 0 or when there is a
number such that x
1
= y
1
, and x
2
= y
2
(a) Let x
1
= y
1
and x
2
= y
2
for some number . Then
x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
= y
1
2
+ y
2
2
= (y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)
=
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
=
_
2
(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
=
_
(y
2
)
2
+ (y
2
)
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
=
_
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
Note the argument is symmetrical, with equality holding if y
1
= x
1
, y
2
= x
2
for some number . In
particular, equality holds if = 0, i.e. when y
1
= y
2
= 0.
Next, suppose y
1
and y
2
are not both 0, and there does not exist a number such that x
1
= y
1
and
x
2
= y
2
. Then it must be the case that
0 < (y
1
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
x
2
)
2
=
2
y
1
2
2y
1
x
1
+ x
1
2
+
2
y
2
2
2y
2
x
2
+ x
2
2
=
2
(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
) 2(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
) + (x
1
2
+ x
2
2
).
So we have a quadratic polynomial in , greater than 0. We know from Problem 18, that the least
value of a
2
+b +c, for a > 0, is
b
2
4ac
4a
, which, in this case, must be greater than zero. Thus we
have (b
2
4ac) > 0, or b
2
4ac < 0. That is,
4(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
4(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)(x
1
2
+ x
2
2
) < 0
(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
< (x
1
2
+ x
2
2
)(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)
|x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
| <
_
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
Hence, x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
<
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
.
(b) As before, in (a), note that equality in the Schwarz inequality holds if x
1
= x
2
= 0 or y
1
= y
2
= 0, so
assume that x
1
, x
2
are not both zero, and y
1
, y
2
are not both zero.
Next, observe that, for x, y R, 0 (x y)
2
= x
2
2xy + y
2
, hence 2xy x
2
+ y
2
. We will use this
fact for our choices of x and y.
For each of i = 1, 2, let
x =
x
i
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
y =
y
i
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
Whence we get
2x
i
y
i
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
x
i
2
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
+
y
i
2
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
Summing over i, we have
2x
1
y
1
+ 2x
2
y
2
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
+
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
2(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
2
x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
1
x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2

_
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
(c) First notice that
(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
+ (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
= (x
1
y
1
)
2
+ (x
2
y
2
)
2
+ 2x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
+ (x
1
y
2
)
2
+ (x
2
y
1
)
2
2x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
= (x
1
y
1
)
2
+ (x
1
y
2
)
2
+ (x
2
y
1
)
2
+ (x
2
y
2
)
2
= (x
1
2
+ x
2
2
)(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)
Now (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
is nonnegative, so
(x
1
2
+ x
2
2
)(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
) = (x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
+ (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
Therefore,
x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2

_
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
(d) The necessary conditions for equality in the Schwarz inequality can be derived directly:
|x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
| =
_
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
= (x
1
2
+ x
2
2
)(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)
(x
1
y
1
)
2
+ 2x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
+ (x
2
y
2
)
2
= (x
1
y
1
)
2
+ (x
1
y
2
)
2
+ (x
2
y
1
)
2
+ (x
2
y
2
)
2
0 = (x
1
y
2
)
2
2x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
+ (x
2
y
1
)
2
0 = (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
x
2
y
1
= x
1
y
2
which provides the following cases.
y
1
= y
2
= 0
At least one of y
1
, y
2
is not zero. Without loss of generality, let y
1
= 0. Then let =
x
1
y
1
. Then,
by denition, x
1
= y
1
, as well as, from above, x
2
=
x
1
y
1
y
2
= y
2
.
Next, we explore how the necessary conditions for equality manifest in each of the preceding proofs.
(a) From case separation in the proof, we see that if y
1
, and y
2
are not both zero, and there is no
that satises x
1
= y
1
and x
2
= y
2
, then equality in the Schwarz inequality cannot hold. By the
contrapositive, equality implies that y
1
= y
2
= 0 or there exists a such that x
1
= y
1
, x
2
= y
2
.
(b) If equality holds, then, in one case, y
1
= y
2
= 0 or x
1
= x
2
= 0. Otherwise, y
1
, y
2
are not both
zero, and x
1
, x
2
are not both zero. Tracing the proof backwards, equality implies
2x
1
y
1
+ 2x
2
y
2
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
_
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
=
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
+
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
2x
1
y
1
+ 2x
2
y
2
= (x
1
2
+ x
2
2
)
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
+ (y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
Let =
x
1
2
+ x
2
2
y
1
2
+ y
2
2
. Then we have
2x
1
y
1
+ 2x
2
y
2
=
1
(x
1
2
+ x
2
2
) + (y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)
2(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
) = (x
1
2
+ x
2
2
) +
2
(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
)
0 =
2
(y
1
2
+ y
2
2
) 2(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
) + (x
1
2
+ x
2
2
)
0 = (
2
y
1
2
2x
1
y
1
+ x
1
2
) + (
2
y
2
2
2x
2
y
2
+ x
2
2
)
0 = (y
1
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
x
2
)
2
So
0 = y
1
x
1
and 0 = y
2
x
2
x
1
= y
1
and x
2
= y
2
(c) If equality holds, then
(x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
+ (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
= (x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
)
2
(x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
= 0
x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
= 0
x
1
y
2
= x
2
y
1
Providing the same cases as in the direct proof above.
Page 11 of 14
(6) Problem 1.21
Prove that if
|x x
0
| < min
_

2(|y
0
| + 1)
, 1
_
and |y y
0
| <

2(|x
0
| + 1)
,
then |xy x
0
y
0
| < . (The notation min was dened in Problem 13, but the formula provided by that
problem is irrelevant at the moment; the rst inequality in the hypothesis just means that
|x x
0
| <

2(|y
0
| + 1)
and |x x
0
| < 1;
at one point in the argument you will need the rst inequality, and at another point you will need the second.
One more word of advice: since the hypoheses only provide information about xx
0
and y y
0
, it is almost
a forgone conclusion that the proof will depend upon writing xy x
0
y
0
in a way that involves x x
0
and
y y
0
.)
Let > 0, and let x, y, x
0
, y
0
R satisfying
|x x
0
| < min
_

2(|y
0
| + 1)
, 1
_
and |y y
0
| <

2(|x
0
| + 1)
,
First, notice that since |x x
0
| < 1, |x| is within a distance of 1 from |x
0
|, and, hence, is bounded above by
|x
0
| + 1. Algebraically, |x| = |x
0
+ x x
0
| |x
0
| +|x x
0
| < |x
0
| + 1. Now,
|xy x
0
y
0
| = |xy xy
0
+ xy
0
x
0
y
0
|
= |x(y y
0
) + (x x
0
)y
0
|
|x||y y
0
| +|x x
0
||y
0
|
< (|x
0
| + 1)

2(|x
0
| + 1)
+

2(|y
0
| + 1)
|y
0
|
=

2
+
_
2
_
_
|y
0
|
|y
0
| + 1
_
<

2
+

2
=
Page 12 of 14
(7) Problem 1.22
Prove that if y
0
= 0 and
|y y
0
| < min
_
|y
0
|
2
,
|y
0
|
2
2
_
,
then y = 0 and

1
y

1
y
0
< .
Let > 0, and let y, y
0
R such that
|y y
0
| < min
_
|y
0
|
2
,
|y
0
|
2
2
_
,
Then, since |y y
0
| <
|y
0
|
2
, |y| is within
|y
0
|
2
of |y
0
|. As such, |y| is bounded below by
|y
0
|
2
and above by
3|y
0
|
2
. Formally, this can be demonstrated via the reverse triangle inequality:
|y| |y
0
|
|y y
0
| <
|y
0
|
2
Hence,
|y
0
|
2
< |y| |y
0
| <
|y
0
|
2
|y
0
|
2
< |y| <
3|y
0
|
2
Thus, y = 0, and we have
2
3|y
0
|
<
1
|y|
<
2
|y
0
|
(1)
Now,
1
y

1
y
0
y y
0
y
0
=
1
|y|

|y y
0
|
|y
0
|
<
2
|y
0
|

|y y
0
|
|y
0
|
(by (1))
=
2
|y
0
|
2
|y y
0
|
<
2
|y
0
|
2

|y
0
|
2
2
=
Page 13 of 14
(8) Problem 1.23
Replace the question marks in the following statement by expressions involving , x
0
, and y
0
so that the
conclusion will be true:
If y
0
= 0 and
|y y
0
| < ? and |x x
0
| < ?
then y = 0 and

x
y

x
0
y
0
< .
Let > 0. And let x, y, x
0
, y
0
R, with y
0
= 0. Also let
=

2(|x
0
| + 1)
. Now, let
|y y
0
| < min
_
|y
0
|
2
,

|y
0
|
2
2
_
and |x x
0
| < min
_

2(
1
|y0|
+ 1)
, 1
_
By Problem 22, y = 0 and
1
y

1
y
0
<
Next dene z =
1
y
and z
0
=
1
y
0
. Then we have
|z z
0
| <
=

2(|x
0
| + 1)
, and |x x
0
| < min
_

2(|z
0
| + 1)
, 1
_
Thus, by Problem 21,
x
y

x
0
y
0
x
1
y
x
0

1
y
0
= |xz xz
0
|
<
Page 14 of 14

Problem 1.3

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Problem 1.3

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/r/SpivakStudyGroup/xerxexrex Problem Set # 1 (1) Problem 1.

b. This follows from ab =

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