CHAPTER1

1.1 OVERVIEW

The development of novel charging solutions for battery electric transportation

systems (BETS) is an area of active research. It is now widely accepted that electric
vehicles (EVs), buses, commercial trucks, ships and potentially aircraft will become
increasingly reliant upon battery electric power systems. The success of this electric
transport revolution depends on several factors, one of which is the availability of
battery charging infrastructure that can cost effectively integrate with the existing
electrical network, deliver adequate energy transfer rates and adapt to the rapid
technical development of this industry.

With respect to EVs, several research themes exist which seek to address the
perceived and anticipated challenges that the widespread use of EVs may present.
These challenges can be broadly classified as the impact of EV charging on the power
network; the optimum deployment of charging infrastructure to minimise capital costs
and maximise utilization; and the correlation of EV charging with low carbon energy
sources

Prior research has demonstrated that these challenges can be effectively

addressed through the use of dedicated EV charging networks. The interconnection of
the EV loads and point of common coupling (PCC) can be achieved using traditional
AC power networks but there is a growing body of research that suggests low voltage
direct current (LVDC) charging networks (400-1500 Vdc) can offer improved
renewable energy integration by using fewer power conversion stages, enhanced
network controllability due to the absence of reactive power and higher power
charging compared to the existing AC charging solutions. However, the
implementation of LVDC charging networks require the use of DC/DC converters at
each parking bay to control the charging power flow and voltage for each vehicle.
This adds an additional cost to enable charging for each parking bay and can
introduce voltage stability challenges that must be addressed in the design and
operation, furthermore, the centralized AC/DC converter and distribution cables are
oversized to match the simultaneous demand from multiple vehicles. Such DC
charging networks will operate well as high power chargers (HPC) in locations with
frequent vehicle turnover such as dedicated charging stations in urban or motorway
environments. But, under low utilization rates, the centralized converter will operate
under part-load with lower power conversion efficiencies and the oversized, fixed
cable, will result in higher implementation costs.

The proposed topology operates always with sinusoidal current and controlled
reactive power in all range of operation (from minimum to full load), in both G2V and
V2G modes. The sinusoidal current is important to keep the electrical power grid
voltage with low distortion, particularly if there is a large number of EVs being
charged simultaneously. The control of the reactive power is important to regulate the
electrical power grid voltage, in order to keep it close to the nominal value.
Considering that the line impedance of the electrical power grid is mostly inductive, if
the battery chargers of the EVs, working collaboratively, operate with capacitive
power factor, they contribute to increase the voltage in the Point of Common
Coupling (PCC) of the power grid, otherwise, if they operate with inductive power
factor, they contribute to decrease the voltage in the PCC.

1.2 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING

Advances in battery technology, evolved vehicle industry, electric grid

automation and other driving factors are increasing the penetration rate of EVs
and promoting the long-term shift to more efficient transportation. For example,
the cost of battery storage, which account for up to 25% of the cost of EV, are
predicted to fall from above $1,000 per kWh in 2007 to $200 in 2020. In the
last five years, the number of electric vehicles has increased significantly and
can now be found on roads throughout the world. New registrations of EVs
increased by 70% between 2014 and 2015. And it is expected to have a large
share in the future transportation system over the next 20 years. EVs use
electric motors powered by electrical energy stored in the battery for driving.
This powering model consumes less energy, produces comparatively little
emission and gives a feasible option for replacing petroleum-fuelled vehicles.

In order to power these vehicles, huge battery packs having finite energy
capacity are employed which need to be recharged periodically, typically
through an AC-DC converter based battery charger. These chargers are
basically consisting of an AC-DC converter (DBR-Diode Bridge Rectifier) as a
pivot component to communicate the charging signals to the battery packs
employing constant voltage, constant current or constant voltage/constant
current (CC/CV) control mode to give a regulated DC at the load side. While
communicating these charging signals, a careful attention is needed by the input
current power quality profile and harmonics spectrum i.e. all the indices should
be well within IEEE/IEC standard defined by so that energy usage is
maximized and the battery may have a prolonged life. Since DBR, due to its
nonlinear nature, has a bad impact on input power profile, so, for a low THD
(Total Harmonic Distortion) and an improved PF (Power Factor), DPF
(Displacement Power Factor) and DF (Distortion Factor), a PFC based isolated
DC-DC converter is used. A high frequency isolation in PFC converter is
beneficial for improved charging characteristics by avoiding any harmonics or
unwanted signals enter the battery and hence, increasing its overall
performance.

Conventional AC-DC converters based EV battery chargers have

inherent drawbacks of harmonic injection, voltage distortion, high THD (order
of 50-55%) and a very poor PF (0.8-0.85) of the input mains current. To
mitigate this issue, a bridgeless (BL) single ended primary inductance converter
(SEPIC) with improved power quality, is presented in this article. The input
current shows a unity power factor operation over the entire charging duration.
Due to elimination of DBR and the current conduction through relatively less
number of devices, conduction losses are significantly reduced. This, in turn,
improvises the charger efficiency as compared to conventional BL SEPIC
converter. The overall performance of proposed charger is illustrated with the
help of various operating modes, design equations, simulation-based
performance and experimental validation under steady state as well as over
wide fluctuations in ac mains voltage.

AS THE penetration of plug-in hybrid electric (PHEVs) and plug-in

electric vehicles (EVs) continues to increase, uncoordinated and uncontrolled
charging of these vehicles could significantly impact the distribution grid .
Within the Smart Grid Initiative, the need to accommodate for the impact of a
large number of EVs performing charging and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) calls for
intelligent control methodologies. Also, both the size of current EV batteries as
well as the driving needs of EV owners call for faster charging times. However,
the aforementioned features have to be supported by the deployment of
adequate infrastructure in the utility grid, including power converters, smart
meters, and smart load management strategies.

1.3 EV CHARGING NETWORKS

DC charging network that can be considered a hybrid solution between the

existing AC charging systems and the fixed LVDC charging network. The
reconfigurable aspect of this charging network circumvents some of the technical and
standard limitations associated with DC distribution systems which are summarized in
. In this topology, fully depicted in Fig. 1.1, there is no requirement to interrupt DC
current since the network is

Fig. 1.1: Overview of a reconfigurable DC charging network.

Reconfigured offload and the instability challenges associated with constant

power loads is mitigated as only one EV is charged from a dedicated source at any
moment in time. Furthermore, in a reconfigurable network, the cables are sized for the
maximum power of a single charger and not for the peak output power of multiple
chargers, as is the case in a fixed LVDC charging network or standard AC network. A
variety of existing switches and communication systems are commercially available
which can be employed to operate the reconfigurable network. However, a failed
switch could potentially block charging of other connected vehicles located beyond
the point of failure unless specific provision is made to account for such a situation.
Therefore, the central switch should fail closed and the remaining switches open, to
allow charging access to parking bays beyond the failed switch. With existing EV
charging schemes not extending beyond 100 parking bays at the upper end, this
reconfigurable DC charging network (covering up to 50 EV’s) is suitable to current
practical deployments but it could also be replicated many times over to accommodate
future, larger parking areas without adversely affecting the solving speed of the EMS.
In this case a zonal approach to charging is envisaged that would help manage the
demand in line with the available capacity of secondary distribution transformers by
allocating a portion of the available power capacity to each of the reconfigurable
charging zones.

Regardless of the parking area size, to effectively operate a reconfigurable DC

network (Fig. 1.1) requires an EMS solution that can optimally manage the interaction
between the chargers and EVs according to user requirements and within specified
system constraints. Next, we describe the mathematical model of the EMS, which
performs network reconfiguration, charger power level selection and manages user
inconvenience.

1.4 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING SYSTEM

The EVs charging system with PV grid-connected configuration is

presented on the Fig. 1. It is a matter of PV local power generation with an
integrated energy management system operating under the assumption that the
locally generated power is used where, when, and how it is generated. The
public grid is used only as a backup and if available. That could eliminate
energy consumption from the utility grid by means of self-feeding and sale the
excess power only if the public grid allows it. Thus, for more energy efficiency,
the generated electricity must be consumed in the production form; this is why
we take into consideration the development of BEVs charging points. When the
sunshine is too weak to generate the entire necessary power to transfer to the
BEVs, the public grid supplies the DC load also. In contrast, when the
generated PV power is more important than the BEVs demanded power, the
system sends power back to the grid. The bidirectional energy flow from/to the
grid is operated taking into account the public grid availability and needs. For
this, an experimental platform and a test bench have been installed in our
university, whose images are given on the Fig. 2. It refers mainly to 16 PV
panels (2kWP, Fig. 2(a)), a weather station, a public grid emulator Energy
Management Strategies Public Grid BEVs Charging PV Sources

Figure 1.2 EVs charging station with PV grid-connected system.

1.5 EV CHARGING METHODOLOGY

There are a number of different ways to charge your electric car’s battery
pack. Being faced with normal and fast charging methods, and different
connector types, can be a little daunting at first. But in fact it is much more
straightforward than it first appears! In this short guide we’ll let you in on all
the key information you need to know.
Essentially, it comes down to two main considerations: WHERE you
decide to charge and HOW FAST you decide to charge. These are
interconnected, and the charging speed will depend on which particular EV you
own, its battery capacity and what sort of charging system you are using.
Another key thing to know from the outset: There are three categories or types
of charging: Trickle Charge, AC Charge and DC Charge.
 Trickle charge
The slowest method of charging your EV at home, using a standard
(three-prong) 220V plug. It is only recommended in urgent cases, with caution
and consultation with electricity providers.
 AC charge
Having a wallbox installed lets you charge 3-4 faster using AC
Household Charging. AC Public Charging is also available.
 DC charge
The fastest way to charge your EV – at a public DC Fast charging station
with power from 50kW and above. With this method you can top up your
battery from 20 to 80% in approx. 40 minutes. There are also some ultra-fast
charging stations that already provide more than 150kW.
1.6 ELEMENTS OF AN EV CHARGING SYSTEM
In an EV charging station main component are inverter with is interface
with grid an RCL filter, transformer and a DC bus feed and battery chargers.
 Figure 1.3 Block Diagram EV charging station
The rated capacity of Stated in VAR is defined as

Where Nslot is amount of charging slot

Pev max power rate of an individual EV and cosɸ and K load is overload factor to
cover overload transient. The block diagram is show were an inverter is
connected to grid with LCL filter and Inverter is controlled by control of
inverter which use reoffered value from grid at the end DC off board charged
with battery is show . According to grid voltage Dc line voltage is set

Where
V min = minimum battery voltage mmin = minimum modulation index
1.6.1 EV BATTERY
The Thevenins equivalent base mode is used to represent the battery
module where Voc=open circuit voltage which depends upon soc and Rseries is
used for V-I characteristics whereas Transient t response of battery is shown by
RCII

Figure 1.4 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit for battery model

 Battery is a heart for an EV which pumps power all over the EVs for the
activities. In a market various types of battery available, which are used for EV.
But now a days Li-ion battery get too popular for EV’s.

Table 1.1Batteries Storage Systems

1.6.2 BATTERY CHARGER

A Battery charger having a bi-direction convertor with power electronic
s/w which operated complimentary to each other with respective control
signals.[1] In a convertor a buckboost operation is carry out, Bock-Boost
depend upon the switching of the tree power electronic s/w. A boost action
occurs at the left side voltage Vbat. When lower s/w is operated or triggered
and buck mode is activated when upper s/w is operated.
 Figure 1.5 Battery charger circuit
1.6.3 THREE PHASE INVERTER
The inverter is connected between sources and battery charging module
and its control is done by inverter control system which provide and gate pulse
trigger s/w of invertor and LCL filter is also connected with invertor as shown
in figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6.Three phase inverter with LCL filter

1.6.4 LCL FILTER
The passive filter is implemented to reduce harmonics which cause
disturbance in line current and voltage which result a poor power quality and
make an impact on system. LCL filter connected between source and invertor.
Filter carry out function to filter out current harmonics which make an balance
between source and invertor. An LCL filter prefer for a 3rd order low pass filter
which provide good harmonics attenuation and small filter in size.
1.7 CONTROL SYSTEMS IN AN EV CHARGING SYSTEM
Control system is an key aspect in a modeling of an any system it keep
eye on working of system at different phases and adjust the input value
according to system requirement to get proper desirable results.
1.7.1. INVERTER CONTROL
Invertor is utilized to power exchange between AC grids to DC bus. The
control strategy implemented cascaded control in dq frame and PWM generator
is used give an gate pulse for s/w of invertor which help to maintain DC bus
voltage .The cascade control have an inner current loop and outer voltage
loop .Phase locked loop(PLL) is used to synchronization with grid voltage .the
control is shown on figure.

Figure 1.7 Inverter control.

The PLL shown in fig 1.8 where the input measurement of three phase
voltage in PLL where output signal vd, ɵgrid, ware to use in dq frame inverter
control.
 Figure 1.8 PLL

1.7.2. Battery control

Two controls are proposed for battery charge control one is constant
current and another is constant voltage. Whereas constant current is an initial
stage of charging which is shown in fig 1.9and constant voltage shown in figure
1.10.

Figure 1.9 Constant current

Figure 1.10 Constant voltage

1.8 EV CHARGING CONFIGURATIONS
 EVs have gradually become a part of everyday life, the demand for
constructing new electric vehicle charging stations (ECSs), also known as EV
supply equipment (EVSE), is also expected to increase fast. Adequate ECS
planning and operating mechanisms are extremely important to further
accelerate the development of EVs and HEVs. To build a modern ECS
integrating energy storage systems (ESSs) and renewable energy (RE)-based
power generation, some technical issues have to be taken into consideration,
e.g., system configuration, power transfer rate, power and energy management,
and system optimization

1.8.1 Electric vehicle charging stations without REs and ESSs

If an ECS is directly connected to a grid without other energy support

such as RE and ESSs, as shown in Figure 1.11, the charging power is
completely supplied by the grid. As a result, the grid receives full impact from
the irregular charging/discharging loads of EVs, thus increasing the level of
power quality (PQ) problems in the power distribution system. In [25–42],
ECSs not using RE and ESSs were investigated. Based on the results presented
in the reviewed papers, in some cases, only limited EVs can possibly be
connected. It seems that the simplicity in system design and low cost constitute
its advantages.
 Figure 1.11 Typical system configuration of a grid-connected ECS without
renewable energy (RE)-based power generation and energy storage sys

1.8.2 ECSs with ESSs

The system configuration of ECSs embedded with ESSs is shown in

Figure 1.12. In this system design, a number of optimal energy control and

management algorithms can be performed. Popular technical topics discussed in

this category include quantitative analysis in various system designs, system
configuration planning, modeling, control, and hybrid ESS (HESS) design for
applications in ECSs

Figure 1.12 Typical system configuration of a grid-connected ECS with an ESS.

1.8.3 ECSs with REs

 As shown in Figure 1.13, ECSs with RE-based power generation can
reduce the peak load demand on a power grid to a certain extent. In such a
system design, the EVs can even be used as ESSs to assist the regulation of RE-
based power generation, which is naturally unpredictable, if operation priority
is given to support the real power of a grid

Figure 1.13. Typical system configuration of a grid-connected ECS with RE-

based power generation.

1.8.4 ECSs with ESSs and REs

As shown in Figure 1.14, the integration of RE-based power generation,

various ESSs and grid-tied ECS systems constitutes a powerful system with a
number of technical merits. RE-based power generation can be used to assist or
take charge in EV charging and peak power flow-shaving, and the related
power losses of the connected power grid can be reduced; moreover, a better
PQ can be achieved. The inevitable power fluctuations of RE-based power
generation units can be improved to some extent or even completely eliminated
with the additional ess.

Figure 1.14. Typical system configuration of a grid-connected ECS with ESS

and RE power generation

1.9 THESIS ORGANISATION

Chapter 2 – Literature Survey, Discusses various related works
Chapter 3 – System Analysis, Provides a clear description of the existing
methods and proposes system and its principle of operation
Chapter 4 – Proposed system
Chapter 5 – Results
Chapter 6 – Conclusion, Concluded the thesis with result and discussion

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

G.-J. Su et.la proposes a novel unipolar/interleaved PWM switching

scheme is proposed, which can significantly reduce the switching losses and
substantially increase the efficiency. A dual inverter drive prototype was
assembled to test the PWM control schemes and test results are included to
verify the effectiveness of the proposed control scheme. The use of an onboard
electrical propulsion system in a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) to provide plug-
in charging, mobile power generation, and vehicle-to-grid support capabilities is
discussed. Pulse width modulation (PWM) control methods are examined for
operating such a plug-in HEV in mobile power generation and vehicle-to-grid
support applications to assess their impacts on the power conversion efficiency.
 S. Haghbin et.al discusses An isolated high-power three-phase integrated
motor drive and charger based on a split-phase permanent magnet motor is
presented in this paper. The motor winding connections are reversible by a
relay-based switching device for traction and battery charging. In traction
mode, the motor is a classical three-phase motor, but in charging mode it is a
rotating isolating transformer providing a three-phase voltage source for the
inverter to charge the battery. A mathematical model of the motor with six
stator windings is presented for an arbitrary phase shift in windings. For the
charging mode, the split-phase motor grid synchronization process and charge
control are explained including the developed controller.

S. Haghbin, et.al also proposed a system For vehicles using grid power to
charge the battery, traction circuit components are not engaged during the
charging time, so there is a possibility to use them in the charger circuit to have
an onboard integrated charger. The battery charger can be galvanically isolated
or nonisolated from the grid. Different examples of isolated or nonisolated
integrated chargers are reviewed and explained. Moreover, a novel isolated-
high-power three-phase battery charger based on a split-phase permanent-
magnet motor and its winding configuration is presented in this paper. The
proposed charger is a bidirectional high-power charger with a unity power
factor operation capability that has high efficiency.

A. Mallik et.al proposed a comprehensive sliding mode control (SMC)

loop design for single-phase interleaved totem pole (ILTP) power factor
correction (PFC) converters in electric vehicle onboard charger applications is
proposed. The major objectives of the proposed SMC are to improve the
converter dynamics, ensure a tight output voltage regulation under fast load
fluctuations, and maintain a unity power factor. The sliding mode coefficients
are selected to ensure both small signal and large signal stability for the
robustness of the converter in wide operating conditions. As verification to the
proof-of-concept, a hardware prototype of a single-phase ILTP PFC is
developed and tested to validate the effectiveness of loop design by the load
transient tests. The steady state results exhibit a power factor >0.995 and total
harmonic distortion <;3% at 800 W load power. At a 25% step-change in load
power, SMC achieves 80 ms settling time, which is approximately 200 ms
faster than the conventional PI control.

M. Tabari et.al proposes an energy management strategy (EMS) for a dc

distribution system for power system integration of plug-in electric vehicles
(PEVs). The dc distribution system is intended to integrate electric vehicles in a
parking lot with an ac grid through bidirectional dc-dc converters (battery
chargers) and a central voltage-sourced converter. Using an online constrained
optimization algorithm, the proposed EMS manages the power flow within the
dc system. Thus, the PEV owners can charge or discharge their batteries based
on the state-of-charge of the batteries and their upcoming trip plans. The EMS
offers two energy exchange options to the PEV owners: 1) the fast energy
exchange option for the owners wishing to minimize the energy exchange time;
and 2) the optimal energy exchange option for the owners intend to either
minimize their costs of charging or maximize their revenues through selling
their stored energy.

A. I. Maswood et all presented A novel suppressed-link rectifier-inverter

topology with near unity power factor. This work describes a novel method in
improving the input current total harmonic distortion (THD) as well as the
power factor of a three-phase suppressed-link rectifier-inverter circuit. This
proposed method makes use of only three bi-directional low power static
switches with a relatively simple gating circuit. This paper illustrates how the
proposed method is superior in reducing the input current THD of a rectifier-
inverter set to about 5%, which is in line with the requirements of IEEE
standard 519-1992. This is accomplished without the use of any filter or
complex wave shaping techniques. A delta-modulated (DM) voltage source
inverter (VSI) with proportional integrator forms the output stage of the
converter. It helps to provide constant volts per hertz operation without the need
for additional feedback circuitry and complexity. Moreover, this novel DM
technique also helps to provide a smooth transition from the pulse width
modulation (PWM) to square wave, hence allowing full utilization of the DC
bus voltage.
Weiwei Li et.al states Due to the significance of extracting the grid
voltage information, the grid synchronization system plays an important role in
the control of grid-connected power converters, and various grid voltage
synchronization schemes have been proposed. This paper adopts the complex-
vector-filter method (CVFM) to analyze the grid synchronization systems. With
this method, the pairs of scalar signals, for example, α-and β-axis components
in the stationary α−β frame, are combined into one complex vector. As a
consequence, the grid synchronization systems can be described with the
complex transfer functions, which is very convenient to evaluate the steady-
state performance.

S.Arul Daniel et.al proposed an Isolated renewable energy systems based

on hybrid wind-solar sources are considered as feasible and reliable options
instead of wind-diesel systems. An isolated hybrid scheme employing a simple
three-phase square-wave inverter to integrate a photovoltaic array with a wind-
driven induction generator has been proposed for the first time. A dynamic
mathematical model of the hybrid scheme with variables expressed in d -q
synchronous reference frame has been developed. The model is implemented in
the power system blockset platform and a comparison has been made between
transients simulated and transients obtained in an experimental prototype.

C. Shi, Y. Tang et.al proposed a three-phase onboard charger, integrated

with the propulsion system of a plug-in electric vehicle. It is constructed by
connecting an add-on three-phase power electronics interface to the propulsion
system. The propulsion motor is utilized as a coupled DC inductor for the
charger. The charging power level of the proposed charger could be as high as
that of the propulsion system. The charger topology is capable of three-phase
power factor (PF) correction and battery voltage/current regulation. Detailed
analyses of the circuit operation and modeling of the circuit are presented.

C. Shi and A. Khaligh describes a Three-phase interface based on the

traditional three-phase three-switch buck ac–dc converter and is integrated with
the propulsion system to construct an integrated buck-boost charger, in which
the inverter is reconfigured to operate as an interleaved converter. The motor
windings are used as the inductors of the integrated buck-boost charger. A dual
cascaded control strategy is designed for the two-stage charger. The first
cascaded control regulates the battery voltage and the motor-winding currents,
while the second cascaded control modulates the input filter inductor current
and the input filter capacitor voltage. The integrated charger is modeled and
analyzed to design the controllers, considering the sensitivities of duty cycle to
the input filter inductor current and to the input filter capacitor voltage, and the
sensitivity of the modulation index to the motor-winding currents
 CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM ANALYSIS

3.1 EXISTING COMBINED MOTOR DRIVE AND BATTERY

RECHARGE SYSTEM
Based on an Induction Motor An integrated motor drive and charger
based on an induction machine was proposed and is currently in use in the car
industry. The main idea is to use the motor as a set of inductors during charging
time to constitute a boost converter with the inverter to have unity power factor
operation. Fig. 3.1 shows the functional schematic diagram of this non-isolated
integrated charger system. By the means of inexpensive relays the machine
windings are reconfigured to be inductors in the charging mode. For example
for a single-phase ac supply, LS2 and LS3 shown in Fig.3.1 are the induction
motor phase to neutral leakage inductances of the windings that act as inductors
in the single-phase boost converter circuit. The battery voltage should be more
than maximum line-line peak voltage in the input to guarantee unity power
factor operation. As an example they used a 336 Vdc battery pack with a 220
Vac input. The relays K1, K2 and K2’ shown in Fig. 3.1 are used to reconfigure
the motor in motoring mode. Further, the inverter switches S1 and S2 are open
in charging mode and switches S3-S6 are part of the boost converter. A
common/differential mode filter is used to eliminate the switching ripples and
spikes from the line side current. Moreover, a lot of electrostatic shielding is
used to decrease the ground current and high voltage transitions. In traction
mode, relays K2 and K2’ are open and K1 is closed, yielding a classical three-
phase drive system.
A conventional three-phase pulse width modulation (PWM) scheme is
used in drive mode operation of the system to generate the desired motor speed
and torque. In battery charging mode, the PWM scheme with current control is
employed to charge the battery with unity power factor capability. It is possible
to have a three-phase input supply with this scheme, but there will be developed
torque in the machine during charging that should be considered. The one-phase
charger can charge from any source, 100 − 250 Vac, from 200 W up to 20 kW
and can be used in vehicle to grid (V2G) applications or for the backup power
or energy transfer to other electric vehicles.

Figure 3.1: Non-isolated single-phase integrated charger based on an induction

motor drive system.
The filter bank at the front of the ac supply will smooth the harmonic
contents of the charger line current. In some examples the motor, the inverter
and the capacitor components are used in the charging system. All of these
solutions are bidirectional non-isolated type of chargers with unity power factor
operation and single-phase ac supply. In traction mode an inverter and a three-
phase ac motor is used. In the first version the motor is not used in the charger
circuit and instead an inductor is used to be the energy storage device in the
front-end boost converter. The inverter switches are used in the system (part of
the boost and DC/DC converter). In a later version, the inductors are eliminated
and the machine leakage inductances are used as part of the charger circuit.
When the machine is used as three inductors, the inductors have self and mutual
couplings. So the inductance matrix should be considered in this case. The
leakage inductances are the part of inductors that have no coupling to the other
inductances. No switching devices like relays are used to reconfigure the circuit
for traction and charging mode uses the same idea of integration but there are
two independent inverters in the system.

3.1.1 DRAWBACKS
This system imposes some limitations in the motor that it should be a
wound-rotor type. Moreover, a mechanical lock is needed to hold the motor
during the battery charging. Another disadvantage is the system efficiency that
can be a low value due to the large airgap in the magnetization path. However,
galvanic isolation is an interesting feature in this case
3.2 PROPOSED UNIFIED CONTROL
This project proposes a novel unified control scheme for EV charging
able to perform four-quadrant operation in both single- and three-phase
systems, and applicable to a single power converter architecture as suggested in
Fig. 3.2.

The main contributions of the control are:

1) A novel unified phase locked loop (PLL) which can autonomously track
single- and three-phase signals,

2) A current signal preprocessing stage which allows for the use of the same
control strategy indifferent to the single- or three-phase nature of the network
that is connected to, and
3) A unified pulse width modulation (PWM) strategy for a three-leg two-level
voltage source inverter (VSI) which can operate as a single-phase H-bridge or a
three-phase VSI.

Figure 3.2 Proposed integrated converter for multiple functionalities.

Figure 3.3. Circuit schematic of the proposed unified grid-connected electric

vehicle system
 The architecture of the EV’s power conversion system considered in this
project is shown in Fig. 3.3. It includes a battery bank connected to a dc bus via
a bi-directional dc-dc converter and a VSI which serves as the interface to the
ac system. The battery is modeled through a Thévenin equivalent including its
transient behavior. The bidirectional dc-dc converter regulates the battery
charge and discharge processes. The ac grid is modeled by an ideal voltage
source behind an impedance and may correspond to a single- or three-phase
network. The EV may connect to the ac grid at a domestic outlet or at a
charging station, leading to single- or three-phase charging operating modes,
respectively. It is assumed that in either case there will be a metering device
which will provide the grid voltage signal for the EV control. Fig. 3.3 also
illustrates the VSI connects to the grid through a standard LCL filter to comply
with power quality requirements. Design guidelines for properly sizing this
filter are readily available in the literature. Details of the unified control, which
is the focus of this project, are provided in the next section.

3.3 SYSTEM DISCRIPTION

This section provides details on the unified control proposed in this

paper. The following subsections explain the overall control strategy as well as
the key components which make this control indifferent to the single- or three-
phase nature of the ac grid network the EV is connected to.

3.3.1 FLEXIBLE CONTROL SYSTEM STRUCTURE

A conceptual block diagram of the proposed control is presented in Fig.

3. As customary in inverter control, it is assumed that dc and ac currents and
voltages are available for measurement. According to active and reactive power
references, the inverter allows for power exchange with the ac grid in either
direction. Hence, the controller proposed in this paper is able to regulate the
active and reactive power exchange in the following operating modes:

i) single-phase ac charging,

ii) three-phase ac charging,

iii) single-phase V2G, and

iv) three-phase V2G.

In all four modes, the system can provide reactive power compensation
as well.

A key observation for the operation of the single- and three phase flexible
controller is that the controller is always fed with a set of three voltages. When
connected to a three-phase grid, the set of three voltages and currents
corresponds to a standard set of three-phase quantities

(1)

(2)
 Figure. 3.4 Overall block diagram of the proposed flexible unified control.

Figure. 3.5 Block diagram illustrating the battery charger control.

However, when connected to a single-phase grid, the set of three voltages

and current takes the form of

(3)
 (4)

In (1) an
phase of the control voltage signals, respectively. In (2) and (4) Ig and ϕI are
the magnitude and phase of the control current signals, respectively.

Fig. 3.4 shows that the overall control features two main blocks: the
battery charger control and the proposed VSI unified control. The latter
contains three main stages: i) a unified PLL to track the magnitude and phase
angle of the ac voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC), ii) a current
control loop whose function is the synthesis of modulating functions according
to the active and reactive power references, and iii) a unified PWM scheme
which generates the VSI switch pulses according to the modulating functions.
These three stages are conceived to provide the basis for the flexibility of the
VSI control by supporting both single- and three-phase operation without the
need for supplementary status signals or circuitry. The battery charger control
works independently of the VSI control and are interfaced through keeping a
constant dc-link voltage level.

3.3 2 BATTERY CHARGER CONTROL

As illustrated in Figure 3.5, the battery charger control consists of a dc-

link voltage loop cascaded with a battery current loop. The control keeps the
dc-link voltage between the VSI and the charger at and gives the duty ratio.
 Figure. 3.6 Proposed unified PLL block diagram.

Figure 3.7 Block diagram of a second order filter.

3.3.3 UNIFIED PLL

A PLL block is utilized to track the grid voltage magnitude and phase. In
both single- and three-phase networks, orthogonal sinusoidal signals are
required to generate the phase comparator. In three-phase systems,
instantaneous orthogonal signals arise naturally from Clarke’s transformation.
For single-phase networks orthogonal signals do not occur naturally and are
artificially created using filters leading to unwanted delays.
 Thus, tracking speed and frequency transient response are reduced when
compared to three-phase PLLs. This project proposes a PLL able to track
single- and three-phase voltage signals with adequate tracking speed in both
cases. To achieve this, the proposed PLL features five blocks as depicted in Fig.
3.6.

The “Filter” block synthesizes three pairs of orthogonal signals which are
fed into a novel “Tv Matrix” block in order to generate a pair of orthogonal
signals in the (α – β) coordinates. These signals are transformed into the d q
reference frame via the rotation matrix R v, where the quadrature component
carries the information about the phase difference and thus acts as a phase
comparator. Finally, the block H(S) controls the frequency, which is fed into a
standard voltage controlled oscillator.

1) Filter: As suggested in Fig. 3.7, the selected filter is based on a generalized

second order integrator. The filter generates two output signals from each
sinusoidal input: one in-phase (vfα) and one in-quadrature (vfβ). It is to be
noted that Vabc as defined in (1) and (3) comprises three signals, and hence the
filter block outputs a total of six filtered signals. Additionally, it is worth
mentioning that the filter block could alternatively generate vfβ as the
derivative of the original input signal. This approach features a faster
performance during transients as reported in, but unfortunately vfβ would have
a large noise level. As a result, the integral component is chosen in this project.

2) Tv Matrix: The Tv Matrix processes the input voltage signals and the signals
coming from the “Filter” block to generate a unique pair of orthogonal signals
as defined in (5) and (6). The novelty of the Tv Matrix stems from its ability to
“delete”
 Fig. 3.8. Block diagram for the inverter’s current control.

The unneeded filtered signal in the three-phase case. The processing is

autonomous and is not dependent upon external status signals.

(5)
 (6)

The structure of (6) suggests an interpretation in terms of two partitions

for the resulting (α-β) voltages. The partition to the left of the dashed line in (6)
may be interpreted as a “conventional” (α-β) transformation. The partition to
the right corresponds to an “additional” term which in the single-phase case
provides the means to generate an orthogonal signal, while in the three-phase
case it cancels out due to the inherent symmetries encountered in such systems.

3)Rv Matrix: The Rv Matrix block rotates the α-β coordinates into the plane.
This transformation, defined in (7) and in (8), makes the voltage signalsVd and
Vq behave as dc quantities.

(7)

(8)

4) PLL Controller H(s): The input signal Vq contains the information about ωt
and θgrid. The PLL controller H(s) brings this signal to zero resulting in (ωt +
ϕv) = θgrid. . The output of H(s) is the frequency ω of the input voltage
signal. Features a polynomial structure which can be a simple first order PI
controller or a higher degree polynomial as suggested in. Herein the structure
H(s) of is selected as

(9)
 Where k is a proportional gain, Vg is the input signal magnitude, is the
nominal or expected frequency of the system, and F(s) is the transfer function
with a non-zero value at s=0.

3.3.4 VSI CURRENT CONTROL

The function of the current control loop is the generation of modulating

signals to feed the pulse width modulator according to the active and reactive
power references. As in the PLL block, the current control also receives single-
or three-phase signals. The processing of input current signals and the
modulation of the switches must be performed accordingly to account for the
number of phases available at the ac network. As suggested in Fig. 3.8, this
paper proposes a novel pre-processing stage to autonomously generate a pair of
orthogonal current signals. Details of this implementation are described in the
following subsections.

1) Calculation of Current References: As explained above, the VSI is current-

controlled according to the active and reactive power references. The active
power reference takes a negative or positive value under charging or
discharging mode, respectively. In either mode the reactive power reference can
take a positive or negative value depending on the needs of the power system.
Therefore, the control allows for four-quadrant operation—a quite desirable
feature for the smart grid. The translation of power into current references is
performed considering the definition of active and reactive power in the
reference frame,

(10)
 In steady state the PLL forces Vq=0 and provides a measurement for vd,
which allows to compute the current references from (10),

(11)

2) Proposed Preprocessing
Stage: This control stage preprocesses the input currents and autonomously
generates the – β currents which feed a conventional current control block.
Fig.3.8 suggests the preprocessing is performed in two steps. A signal generator
synthesizes a set of three artificial currents (i xyz) which are then combined with
the set of the three measured currents (iabc) through the “Matrix T1.” This yields
the currents independent of number of phases in the input currents. The
artificial
currents
signal are
generated
through (12)

(12)

and the α – β currents are obtained via

 (13)

With

(14)

Basic algebra yields the following expressions for the currents:

(15)

In the case
easily verified given the definition of and considering (1) and (2)
—and the conventional currents are obtained. In the case of a single-phase grid,
the voltages and currents are defined by (3) and (4) leading to the following
expressions,

(16)

In (16), ia and ix feature the

same fundamental component and differ only by the noise—ia contains
switching noise while ix is a purely sinusoidal signal. The resulting noise will
add to iβ. Hence, iβ becomes a π/2 phase-shifted signal with respect to iα with a
similar noise level to iα.
 As in the case of the PLL, the matrix Ti may also be interpreted through
two partitions defined by the dashed line in (14). The block to the left of the
dashed line in (14) represents a conventional α – β transformation while the
block to the right side corresponds to an additional block which provides the
means to generate the proper α – β components in the single-phase case while it
cancels out under three-phase operation.

3) Interface With Conventional Current Control: Once the – β currents have

been generated according to the previous subsection, a conventional current
control scheme in the reference frame is implemented in order to generate the
inverter modulation signals. The errors from the measured currents and their
references are added to feed-forward loops in order to decouple the dynamics of
the d – q components so that a better dynamic performance can be obtained.
Procedures to tune the PI controllers are readily available in the literature.

3.3.5 PWM

The PWM of the unified VSI control of Fig. 3.4 modulates the pulses of
the VSI switches according to the number of signals from the current control. In
Fig. 3.8 it can be seen that, independently of the number of phases present in
the ac grid, the current control always outputs a set of three signals. In order to
quantify the control action in either case, a conventional modulation for the
two-level three-phase VSI depicted in Fig. 3.2 is considered:

(17)
Where M3ϕ and ϕ3ϕ readily follow from the modulation indices in the
reference frame,

(18)

On the other hand, when two of the three legs of the VSI—e. g. phases a
and b—connect to a single-phase ac network, the three-phase VSI takes the
form of a single-phase H-bridge inverter. The unified PWM modulator is
exactly the same as in the three-phase case, hence the VSI output voltage takes
the form of a line-to-line voltage:

(19)

In the single phase case, a conventional sine-triangle modulation strategy for

the VSI ought to be as:

(20)

Where M1ϕ and ϕ1ϕ are defined as,

(21)

Accordingly, when connected to a single-phase ac grid, the current control is

forced by the active and reactive power references and the PLL phase to
compute the modulation
indices in such a way
that (19) and (20)
become equivalent, that is,

(22)
 CHAPTER 4

PROPOSED SYSTEM

4.1 The Cuk Converter

The Cuk converter is a negative output DC to DC flyback energy
converter. It is developed on a buck-boost converter with reversed output
polarity. It changes the voltage to a higher or lower level based on the chosen
duty cycle. The Cuk converter uses the capacitor for energy transfer and energy
storage rather than an inductor. The inductor on the input side works as a filter
for the supply to prevent large harmonic content. Besides, it produces ripple-

free output if appropriately designed, making the converter desirable in many

applications [8]–[10]. The Cuk converter is attractive for power factor
correction (PFC) applications because it offers a straightforward
implementation of transformer isolation that limits the inrush current during
start-up and overload conditions. Furthermore, the Cuk converter provides high
efficiency with low noise and low cost since it can be implemented with small-
size filtering components at the input and output side. Besides, the Cuk
converter provides less current ripple and less harmonic distortion that resulted
from the pulsating input current. Fig. 3 (a) illustrates the basic configuration of
the Cuk converter.

4.2 Performance Assessment

 According to the literature [11], EV charging stations may cause many
power quality issues because when the EV chargers convert the power from AC
to DC, harmonics distortions are injected into the grid, which causes thermal
and electrical overloading to the grid transformers. Besides, excess current is
drawn from the grid, which may cause an imbalance between supply and
demand in the utility grid. Therefore, power quality must be considered when
designing an EV charger by following the IEEE 519 standards [12]. Total
harmonic distortion (THD) is a measurement that tells how much of a voltage
or current distortion is due to signal harmonics [13]. It is a measure of the
quality of power; the lower its value, the better. Equation (1) shows how to
calculate THD. In the analysis, considering the input current harmonics of the
first 50th component is sufficient to calculate the THD with satisfying accuracy.

4.3 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF THE CUK CONVERTER OPERATING

IN DICM
Designing a UFC for low voltage applications requires maintaining a

reasonable power quality to meet international standards [12]. In this section, a

non-isolated Cuk converter operating in DICM is proposed because of its
current shaping feature, which reduces the THD significantly with the help of
an input filter and maintains a high power factor using a simple control loop
[15]. The Cuk converter's analysis is

required to obtain each parameter's relations in the circuit and to ensure a

DICM operation over the whole switching period, as shown in (2). 1 1 , (2)
Where is the maximum conduction parameter happening at the minimum load
resistance (maximum output power) and is the maximum conversion ratio for
an acdc power convertor. Where Le is the equivalent inductance, and its
minimum value can be determined as shown in (6) by combining (2) and (3).
The capacitor C1 has a great influence on the input current waveform [16]. To
maintain a low THD, the resonant frequency of the capacitor C1 and the
inductors L1 and L2 should be much greater than the line frequency ωL and
much less than the switching frequency ωs.

4.4 STATE SPACE MODELING OF THE CUK CONVERTER IN

DISCONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE

Designing controllers for DC-DC converters require modeling to obtain

its transfer function, which in turn is used to tune the PI controller. In this
section, the line-to-output current and control-to-output current transfer
functions of the Cuk converter operating in DICM are obtained using the
statespace modeling approach presented in [17].

A. Convention
The following convention is used:
• Capital letters for DC quantities.
• Lowercase letters for time-varying quantities.
• Letters with (^) represent small-signal quantities.
Deriving the Transfer Function
In mode 3, when the inductor current becomes discontinuous, the traditional
small ripple approximation becomes inaccurate in describing the inductor
currents’ dynamics. Hence, a correction on the inductor currents is necessary to
apply the state-space averaging method [17]. Taking into consideration that the
inductor currents exhibit triangular waveforms (refer to Fig. 4), the average
inductor currents can be calculated.

F. Model Verification The model is validated by applying the same step

response to both the calculated transfer function and the simulated open-loop
non-isolated Cuk converter. Fig. 5 (a) and (b) show a satisfactory agreement
between the calculated and simulated models, making the model suitable for
control purposes. After obtaining the control-to-output current transfer function,
the Cuk converter's PI controller can be tuned using the “PID Tuner Tool” from
Simulink and used in a closedloop operation to control the output current and
the charging speed. Fig. 5(c) compares the controlled output current waveforms
obtained from the simulated circuit and the model. It is worth mentioning that at
time 0.3 seconds, a disturbance of 0.05 is introdduced to the duty ratio to
observe how stable the system is.

COMPARISON OF THE CUK CONVERTER OPERATING IN CCM AND

DICM

One of the known challenges when designing a Cuk converter connected

to a full-wave rectifier is maintaining the system's power quality while keeping
the design small. This section studies the performance of a 2kW controlled Cuk
converter operating in CCM and DICM. Table III shows the design parameters
used to obtain the results shown in fig. 6 and fig. 7. Both systems are designed
to meet the IEEE 519- 2014 standards (THDparameters are required when
operating in DICM to satisfy the power quality standards. The controller used in
the DICM operation is less complicated than the controller used in the CCM
operation.

CAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The integration of on-board charging converters with converters for

propulsion into a single unit represents an attractive alternative for the
realization of EVs’ power conversion system. The integration is attractive
because it leads to savings in cost and weight. For such an integrated converter
solution, a novel. Unified control scheme was developed which allows for the
operation of a three-leg VSI as either a single- or a three-phase inverter. The
flexibility provided by this control scheme is motivated by the fact that it is
desirable for EVs to have single- and three-phase connection capabilities for
slow and fast charging, respectively. The effectiveness of the unified control
scheme was successfully validated via detailed computer simulations and
demonstrated in-hardware in the laboratory.