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Research Methods (MPC-005)

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)
Cour e Code: MPC-005
Assignment Code: MPC-005/A TffMA/2012-23
Marks: 100

Note: All Que tioos Are Compulsory

Section A

Ans, er the following question in about 1000 words each� 15x3=45Marks

I. Explain the factorial design with the help of a suitable example.

2. Explain the assumptions. theories and steps of discourse analysis.
3. What are the different steps followed for conducting a scientific research?

Section B

Answer the foUowing questions in about 400 words each. 5x5==25Marks

4. Type of Quasi Experimental Designs.

5. Research Biases.
6. Distinguish berween field and experimentat research desi gn.
7. Types of question that can be u eel in a survey research.
8. Strategies o f interpreting data in a qualitative research.
Section C

Answer the foDowing in about 50 words each. 10x3=30Marks

9. Difference between causal comparali e and experimental research design

I 0. Definition of research design.
11. Significance of hypothesis formulation.
12. Meaning of reliabiJily.
13. Method of snow ball sampling.
14. Difference between independent and dependent variable.
15. Relevance of grounded theory.
16. Meaning of ethnography.
17. Criteria for selecting a case study.
18. Concept of cross sectional survey research desi gn .

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Note: All Questions Are Compulsory Section A Answer the following question in about 1000
words each. 15x3=45Marks
1. Explain the factorial design with the help of a suitable example.
ANS: Factorial design has several important features. First, it has great flexibility for expl01ing or
enhancing the "si gnal" (treatment) in our sh1dies. Whenever we are interested in examining
treatment vaiiations, factorial designs should be strong candidates as the designs of choice.
Second, factorial designs are efficient. Instead of conducting a series of independent studies we
ai·e effectively able to combine these studies into one. Finally, factorial designs ai·e the only
effective way to examine interaction effects.
So fai·, we have only looked at a very simple 2 x 2 factorial design structure. You may want to
look at some factolial design va1iations to get a deeper understanding of how they work You may
also want to examine how we approach the statistical analysis of factorial expe1imental designs.
One of the big advantages of factorial designs is that they allow reseai·chers to look for interactions
between independent vai·iables. An interaction is a result in which the effects of one experimental
manipulation depends upon the experimental manipulation of another independent vaiiable.
For example, imagine that researchers want to test the effects of a memory-enhancing drug.
Paiticipants ai·e given one of three different chug doses, and then asked to either complete a simple
or complex mem01y task. The researchers note that the effects of the mem01y dmg ai·e more
pronounced with the simple memory tasks, but not as apparent when it comes to the complex tasks.
In this 3 x2 fact01ial design, there is an interaction effect between the dmg dosage and the
complexity of the memo1y task.
So if researchers are manipulating two or more independent vaiiables, how exactly do they know
which effects ai-e linked to which variables?

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"It is true that when two manipulations are operating simultaneously, it is impossible to disentangle
their effects completely," explain authors Breckler, Olson, and Wiggins in their book Social
Psychology Alive. ''Nevertheless, the researchers can explore the effects of each independent
vaiiable separately by averaging across all levels of the other independent variable. This
procedure is called looking at the main effect"
Examples of Factorial Designs
A m1iversity wants to assess the staiting salaries of their MBA graduates. The study looks at
graduates working in four different employment ai·eas: accounting, management, finance, and
marketing. In addition to looking at the employment sector, the researchers also look at gender. In
this example, the employment sector and gender of the graduates are the independent variables,
and the starting salaiies ai·e the dependent vaiiables. This would be considered a 4x2 factorial
design.
Reseai·chers want to detennine how the amount of sleep a person gets the night before an exam
impacts perfmmance on a math test the next day. But the experimenters also know that many
people like to have a cup of coffee (or two) in the morning to help them get going. So, the
researchers decide to look at how the amount of sleep and the amount of caffeine influence test
pe1fonnance. The researchers then decide to look at three levels of sleep (4 homs, 6 hours, and 8
hours) and only two levels of caffeine consumption (2 cups versus no coffee). In this case, the
study is a 3x2 factorial design.

2. Explain the assumptions, theories and steps of discourse analysis.

ANS: Discourse analysis is a general tenn for a number of qualitative reseai·ch approaches that
examine the use of language (aural and written texts) in social contexts in helping researchers
find answers to their research questions or problems. Having its roots in applied linguistics,
discomse analysis has been widely taken up in a vai·iety of social science disciplines including
sociology, anthropology, social work, social and cognitive psychology, communication studies,
socio-legal studies, education, management and organization studies, each of which is
subject to its own assumptions, dimensions of analysis and methodologies. In discomse
analysis, the objects of analysis are varied and may include coherent sequences of sentences,
propositions, speech acts, turns and gaps. In addition, topics of discourse
analysis may include:

Va1ious types of discourse used in vaifous disciplines including those used in politics, the media,
education, science, medicine, law, business, etc
The relationship between discourse and the development of syntactic structure
The relationship between discourse and the context in which it is used
The relationship between discourse ai1d power (e.g. How discourse empowers some groups while
disempowering others)
The relationship between discourse ai1d interaction

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The relationship between discourse and cognitive psychology

As was mentioned earlier, discourse analysis includes a number of analytical approaches, each
of which is founded on its own theoretical asswnptions. Some of the theoretical perspectives
and analytical approaches used in discourse analysis are as follows:
Applied linguistics
Cognitive psychology
Conversation analysis
Critical discourse analysis
Discursive psychology
Emergent grammar
Ethnography of co1runw1ication
Functional grammar
Interactional sociolinguistics
Pragmatics
Response based therapy
Rhetmic
Stylistics (linguistics)
Sublanguage analysis
Variation analysis

While these approaches focus on different aspects of language use, they all view language as a
social phenomenon as occurs in social interactions, and are concerned with the social contexts in
which discourse 1s embedded.

Theoretical Assumptions of Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is a qualitative research method that investigates the use of language in social
contexts. Concerned with the creation of meaning through talk and texts, discourse analysis
provides insights into the way language works to help "shape and reproduce social meanings and
forms of knowledge" (Tonkiss, 2012, p. 403). Grounded in social constructivism, which
emphasizes the sociocultural interactions as sources of knowledge, discourse analysis is based on
the following three theoretical assumptions (based on Potter,1996)

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First, knowledge cannot be gained by pure objectivity as scientific and positivist Iesearchers
believe it can. A researcher brings his or her own set of beliefs, cultural values, expectations,
subjectivity and bias into the study when conducting his or her research: A researcher recognizes
his or her own beliefs, and acknowledges how these beliefs influenced by his or her own
personal, culrural, and historical experiences shape his or her inte1pretations of reality and
knowledge.
Second, reality is socially and culturally constrncted. Unlike scientific approaches in which reality,
ideas, or constrncts (e.g. intelligence & attitudes) are categorized as naturally occurring things, in
social constructivist or interpretive approaches, these categ01ies and constr·ucts are shaped by the
language and since language is a sociocultural phenomenon, our sense of reality is socially and
culturally constmcted.These realities which are often varied and multiple lead researchers to look
for the complexity of the views rather than reduce meanings into a few categories or ideas. The
goal of research, then, is to give insights into the different views and perspectives of participants
and how these views and perspectives are socially and historically negotiated.
Third, in social constructivism, a researcher is more interested in studying the language (discourse)
and the role it plays in construction of meaning and knowledge in society. As such, the emphasis
of such research is placed on the discursive patterns of talk in societies, their impact on the
fo1mation and reproduction of social meanings and identities as well as their role in empowering
and disenfranchising institutions and individuals.
Theoretical Assumptions of C1itical Discourse Analysis
C1itical Discourse Analysis is a qualitative method of Iese arch that is grounded in postmodemism,
a paradigm that focuses on knowledge that comes to surface within the "negative conditions of the
world and in the multiple perspectives of class, race, gender, and other group affiliations"
(Cieswell, 2007, p. 79). These negative conditions reveal themselves in the presence of hierarchy,
power and control and include the impo1tance of different discourses, the importance of
disenfranchised people and groups, and the piesence of 'meta-nanatives' or universals that hold
trne regardless of the social conditions (Creswell, 2007). Thus, in c1itical discourse analysis, the
researcher is concerned with how language is used in social and political contexts for ideological
pmposes and for reproducing and legitimizing power, and therefore "goes beyond the rhetorical
or technical analysis of language", which is often the case in discourse analysis, "to explore its
social and political setting, uses and effects" (Tonkiss, 2012, p. 408). As such, there comes a need
to "deconstruct texts" in the spoken and written language and to investigate, and b1ing to light
hidden "hierarchies as well as dominations, oppositions, inconsistencies, and contradictions"
(Cieswell, 2007, p. 25). Notable contributors to this method are N01man Fairclough and Ruth
Wodak, from Lancaster School of Linguistics, whose work focuses on the way discourse produces
or resists social and political inequality, power abuse, or domination.

3. What are the different steps followed for conducting a scientific research?
ANS: Step 1: Understand Yom Motivation

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Is it the quest of knowledge? Is it the will to develop innovative solutions? Do you pursuit to be
a thought leader in a particular field or industry? There are 3 dimensions of motivation:

Ambition: Are you pursuing an academic career or a corporate one?

Dedication: Is the research topic exciting enough for you to work on it for a prolonged period of
time?
Commitment: Are you willing to free your time and resources to work dedicatedly on the research?
Step 2: Find The Purposes of Scientific Research
One should understand that all scientific knowledge to date is merely an accumulation of cmTently
suggested explanations of a pa1ticular phenomenon. Evidently, we could only find out the truth of
a conclusion by adding better evidences and more accurate measurements to the body of
knowledge. Below are several ways one could add value to cunent scientific researches:
Improve the explanation of a paiticular phenomenon by aniving at a better theory for a
phenomenon or by extending a the01y.
Advance the collection of scientific evidences by creating systematic statements about facts that
were previously unobservable.
Improve the methods for collecting obse1vations in relation to theo1y by using previously
unavailable tools or technology.
Step 3: Ensure the Objectivity of Research- 4 Principles
Replicability: Document and conduct the research in a way that others could repeat the procedure
and get identical or similar results.
Independence: For a research to be independent, it has to be free from subjective judgement or
bias stemming from researchers.
Precision: Use precise definition and measurement to ensure others could comprehend, use or
challenge the interpretation of a research.
Falsification: A good scientific research must be stated in a way that could be hypothetically
disproven. For instance, the statement "all swans are white" is falsifiable, as one could disprove it
with a black swan. On the contrary, statements like "If all paiticipants performing the Rain Dance
Ceremony are pure of heait, it will rain the next day" is not falsifiable. For one cannot measure
whether the paiticipants ai·e pure of heart or not, a disproving statement is impossible to create.
Step 4: Research Questions
Asking a reseai·ch question is the logical, necessary, and inevitable conclusion of a set of
arguments. The arguments explain that there is
(1) an impo1tant problem domain with
(2) an impo1tant gap of knowledge about

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(3) a particular impmtant phenomenon that deserves att ention from the research community. Step
5: Research Design
After defining the research questions, we should design a plan of action to answer those questions.
Observation: To document previously unknown or under-studied phenomenon for finding
systematic order in them (if any) in order to form speculative propositions or theories.
hlduction: To reason a general conclusion or a theo1y from a set of specific facts.
Deduction: To test concepts and patterns known from theory using new empi1ical data.
Step 6: Research Methodology
Quantitative Strategies feature research methods such as expetiments or surveys which focus on
quantitative data.
Qualitative Strategies feature research methods like case study or phenomenonlogy which focus
on "words".
Mixed Methods feature the combination of both "number" and "words".
Design Science Methods feature methods to build and evaluate new models, methods or systems.
They focus on the constrnction of the artifact and the demonsh·ation of its utility to an
organizational problem.
Step 7: The Role of Literature
Since it is impmtant to acquire knowledge in order to contribute to knowledge, there are 3 types
of knowledge one needs to acquire before conducting a research:
Domain relevant to your area of interest and research
Theories to examine and frame questions and phenomena
Methodologies applicable to develop new knowledge, build innovative a1tifacts or aiticulate new
questions
Step 8: Theorizing
Theories represent the cunent accumulation of the body of knowledge. As a result, we could only
work with the existing theories in order to compose new ones.
Step 9: Strncture ofRsearch

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Generic Paper Structure Example I Example 2 Example3

l. lntroduction l. Introduction l. Introduction l. lntroduction
2. Theoretical background/ 2. Theory 2. Background & research 2. Background
literature review models
3. Research model 3. Proposition development 3. Research method 3. Theory & hypo theses
4. Procedure 4. Research method 4. Operationalisation & 4. Method
validation
5. Results 5. Scale validation 5. Data analysis &results 5. Operntionalisation &
validation
6. Discussion of results 6. Results 6. Conclusion (include 6. Data analysis & results
contributions, limitations
& limitations)
7. Implications- for 7. Discussion (include 7. Discussion
research & practice limitations & implications)
8. Conclusion 8. Conclusion 8. Future research
9. Practical implications
10. Conclusions

Step 10: Review & Revision

Finally, following the first version of your paper with peer review is a ve1y important process. This
process will ensure the quality standards of your research is met and that it is understandable from
a reader's point of view.

Section B Answer the following questions in about 400 wo1·ds each. Sx5=25Marks

4. Type of Quasi Experimental Designs.

ANS: There are several common differences between hue and quasi-experimental designs.
Tme experimental design Quasi-experimental design
ssignment to The researcher randomly assigns subjects to Some other, non-random method is used to
·eahnent control and treatment groups. assign subjects to groups.
ontl'ol over n·eatment The researcher usually designs the tl'eatrnent. The researcher often does not have control
over the treatment, but instead studies pre­
existing groups that received different
treatments after the fact.
se of control groups Requires the use of control and n·eatrnentConn·ol groups are not required (although
groups. they are commonly used).
Example of a true experiment vs a quasi-expe1irnent

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Let's say you are interested in the impact of a new psychological therapy on
patients with depression.Example: Trne experimental designTo mn a h11e experiment, you
randomly assign half the patients in a mental health clinic to receive the new h·eatment. The
other half-the conb.-ol group-receives the standard course of treatment for depression.
Every few months, patients fill out a sheet describing their symptoms to see if the new h·eatrnent
produces significantly better (or worse) effects tl1an the standard one.
However, for etl1ical reasons, the directors of the mental health clinic may not give you permission
to randomly assign tl1eir patients to h·eatments. In this case, you cannot mn a hue experiment.

5. Research Biases.
ANS: Bias is a deviation from the t:m th when collecting data, analyzing the data, interpreting
and publishing the data which can you lead to false conclusions. Bias can be
intentional or unintentional. It is very irresponsible to conduct and publish biased research.
Every study has limitations and variables. The confounding effect cannot be neglected. This is
why every scientist should be aware of all the possible sources of bias and unde1iake necessa1y
actions to minimize the deviation. If there is still a deviation, then it is the responsibility of the
author to mention it in the limitations section of the repo1i.
It is the equal responsibility of reviewers and editors to detect any possible bias in the repo1i. If
such a bias is found, then it is up to the editor to decide if bias has a significant effect on the
study or not. If that is the case, then it is up to the publisher to reject the research because
conclusions are not valid.
Research bias is also known as experimental bias in which the scientists who perfonn research
influence the results to depict a particular outcome.
Some bias may arise because of expe1iment and inability to take into account all the variables.
Othe1wise, this may occur when the subjects are selected by researchers who are more likely to
generate the expected result, which is a complete reversal of the no1mal process governing
science.
Bias makes qualitative research very dependent on experience as well as a judgement rather
than quantitative research. There is a denial of any bias in quantitative research and acceptance
of bias in qualitative research.
The main point is that in many disciplines, bias is 1mavoidable. Any process, wbich is an
experimental design, involves understanding and then minimizing the effects of inherent bias. In
the case of quantitative research, it is tried to remove the bias entirely. On the other hand, and
qualitative research, it is understood that bias will happen

6. Distinguish between field and expedmental research design.

ANS: Quasi-expe1imental Research Design

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The word "quasi" means paitial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the quasi-expe1imental research
beaiing a resemblance to the true experimental reseai·ch, but not the same. In quasi-experiments,
the paiticipants are not randomly assigned, and as such, they are used in settings where
randomization is difficult or impossible.
Pre-experimental Reseai·ch Design
In pre-experimental research design, either a group or various dependent groups ai·e observed for
the effect of the application of an independent variable which is presumed to cause change. It is
the simplest form of expe1imental resemch design and is treated with no control group.
Field research design;- The design of a field research is the way or the method by which the
reseai·cher will caiTy out said reseai·ch. It refers to the development of a research plan, in which
the techniques and instmments used to obtain the desired info1mation are defined. Field
reseai·ch techniques ai·e the techniques by which the reseai·cher will collect the data he
needs for his reseai·ch. It is the way in which infonnation will be obtained or captured at the
scene of the events.
Due to the great diversity of phenomena or events that can be studied using field research, there
ai·e different types of techniques that allow the collection of info1mation, which are based on the
type of data that must be obtained.
Next, the different techniques used to cany out a field reseai·ch are exposed.

7. Types of questions that can be used in a survey research.

ANS: Open ended questions
Open ended questions are used to collect qualitative data, which is more in-depth and meai1ingful.
Respondents are given to space to provide detail and often work well in tandem with close ended
questions, where they can explain previous answer choices.
However, because the responses are more long-fonn, the data can be time consuming to analyze.
Open ended question examples
What is it like to live in the United States?
How was your meal?
What was the most memorable aspect of the festival?
Close ended questions
These types of questions only require a one-word answer, like yes or no. They're useful for
collecting quantitative sets of data, where you're looking for some statistical significance in the
results.
They can also be used to leain about your respondents or to test theiI knowledge on a subject.

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Closed ended question examples

Do you live in the UK?
Can you 1ide a bike?
Is the sky blue?
Rating questions
Rating scale questions are a great tool for measming attitudes and opinions of your respondents.
You could ask them to what extent do they agree with a statement or to assign a star rating to a
movie or restaurant.
This question type can also be used to determine your Net Promoter Score (customer loyalty).
Rating question examples
How likely are you to recommend our product/service to a friend?
Please, rate our restaurant out of 5 stars.
Overall, how happy were you with the event?
Ranking questions
Ask respondents to rank a set of options from first to last based on a factor you've set. For instance,
you could require that soda brands be ranked based on their taste.
Each answer position will assign an answer option a weight and the average weight of each result
will be indicated in your results.
Ranking question example
Rank the following aspects of the store in order of importance from 1 to 5 where 1 is most
impo1tant to you and 5 is least important to you:
Cleanliness
Parking access
Availability of staff
Product range
Pricing
Like1t scale (mah·ix questions)
Like rating questions, Liken scales are useful for measuring how people feel about something.
These are more commonly used to rate people's experiences, such as how satisfied they were
with customer se1vice.

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However, they more commonly employ a 5, 7 or 9 point scale, where rating questions usually
measure on a scale of 5 or 10.
Like1t scale example
How satisfied were you with the quality of learning mate1ials?
Do you agree that today's event was a success?
How important do you feel this afternoon's meeting agenda was?
Multiple choice questions
Here's where you' 11 provide a set list of answer choices for respondents to pick from. They
work best when you have an exhaustive list of answers, such as you would for a quiz.
You can set these question types to accept a single answer or set a limit for multiple answers to be
chosen.
Multiple choice question examples

Which is the largest city in the UK?

A: Edinburgh I B: Manchester I C: London ID: Live1pool
Wl1at lS the square root of 9?
A: 5 I B: 3 IC: 6 ID: 1

How much a baker's dozen?

A: lOJB: 11 JC:12 ID:13
Picture choice questions
To keep respondents engaged, all surveys should strive to be as visually appealing to as possible.
Picture choice question types make your surve y that little b it more interactive and allow a little
r
rep1ieve fom reading bulks of text.
It also makes testing product and logo concepts easier in market research sruveys.

8. St rategies of interpreting data in a qualitative research.

ANS: Qualitative data analysis can be summed up in one word - catego1ical. With qualitative
analysis, data is not described through numerical values or patterns, but through the use of
descriptive context (i.e., text). Typically, nanative data is gathered by employing a wide variety
of person-to-person techniques. These techniques include:
Observations: detailing behavioral patterns that occur within an obse1vation group. These patterns
could be the amount of time spent in an activity, the type of activity, and the method of
communication employed.

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Focus groups: Group people and ask them relevant questions to generate a collaborative discussion
about a research topic.
Secondary Research: much like h ow patterns of behavior can be observed, different types of
documentation resources can be coded and divided based on the type of material they contain.
Interviews: one of the best collection methods for nanative data. Inquiry responses can be
grouped by theme, topic, or category. The inte1view approach allows for highly-focused data
segmentation.
A key difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis is clearly noticeable in the
interpretation stage. Qualitative data, as it is widely open to interpretation, must be "coded" so as
to facilitate the grouping and labeling of data into identifiable themes. As person-to-person data
collection techniques CaJl often result in disputes pe1taining to proper analysis, qualitative data
analysis is often summarized tlu·ough three basic principles: notice things, collect things, think
about things.

Section C Answer the following in about 50 words each. 10x3=30Marks

9. Difference between causal comparative and experimental research design
ANS: With an experimental research design, the reseaJcher lays out how he or she will manipulate
one of more independent variables and measure their effect on the dependent vaiiable. Some
reseai·ch designs involve no manipulation of independent va1iables. These non-expe1imental
designs are called ex post facto, or after the effect, studies.
An experimental design must deal with four issues:
The people who paiticipate in the experiment.
The independent vai·iable or variables, which are also called the h"eahnent variables. These ai·e the
vaiiables the reseai·chers manipulate during the expe1iment.
The dependent variable, or the effect that the researchers measure.
The plan for controlling extraneous variables.

10. Definition of research design.

ANS: Reseai·ch desi gn can be defined as a conceptual structure within which research will likely
be done. It comp1ises the b luep1int for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means with regards to an enqui1y or
a research desi gn ai-e taken. It is the anangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a way which seeks to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in process.
Meaning and Definition of Reseai·ch Design

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1. Wik:ipedia says, a research design includes the process and methods used to caITy out scientific
research. The design defines the type of study (descriptive, coITelational, experimental, etc) and
sub-type (e.g. , descriptive, longitudinal, case study), research question, hypotheses, independent
and dependent vaTiables, expe1imental design, and, if relevant, data collection methods and a
statistical analysis plan.
2. According to Kerlinger, "Research in the plan, structure and strategy of study conceived in order
to get answers to research questions and also to control variance."
3. It is a thorough outline of how a study is going to take place. It will generally consist of how
data is to be collected, what tools will be used, how the tools will be used and the intended means
for analyzing collected data.
4. It is the detennination and statement of the general research approach or approach followed for
the specific task. It is the heart of planning. If the design sticks to the research objective, it will
guarantee that the client's needs will be served. - David J Luck and Ronald S Rubin
5. According to Green and Tull, " It is the specification of techniques and processes for obtaining
the infmmation required. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project which
states what data is to be gathered from which source by what processes."

11. Significance of hypothesis formulation.

ANS: When research is conducted hypothesis formulation is one of the most preliminary steps.
Hypothesis fonnulation helps in formulating tl1e research problem. Hypothesis fo1mulation is not
a necessary but an important step of the research. A valid and reasonable research can be conducted
without any hyp othesis. Hypothesis can be one and it can be as many as possible. Some studies
are conducted to develop a hypothesis, like exploratory studies, so exploratory sh1dies do not have
a clear hypothesis. Descriptive studies can also be conducted without a hypothesis. In explanatory
studies, that develop a relationship between dependent and independent variable, as well as,
explain the type of relationship between the two vaiiables, there is always a hypothesis.
Definition of Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question. It is a presumption or a hunch on the
basis of which a study has to be conducted. This hyp othesis is tested for possible rejection or
approval. If the hypothesis get accepted it shows that your hunch was right if it get rejected it still
does not mean that your reseai·ch was not valid, but it means that it is the opposite way you thought
and perceived. Whether it is approved or not it gives you some conclusion and adds to the available
body of knowledge.

12. Meaning of reliability.

ANS: Researchers use many methods to assess and improve the reliability of their work, and they
consistently re-evaluate their processes to ensure effectiveness. Reliability in psychology helps

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researchers conduct tests and studies in a consistent fashion. If you want to ensure that the
results of your research studies and psychological testing are more dependable, you may want
to learn more about reliability in psycholo gy. In this a1ticle, we discuss what reliability in
psychology is, why it's impmtant, methods researchers use to assess the reliability of tests and
studies and tips for improving reliability in your own work.
13. Method of snow ball sampling.
ANS: Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method where cmrently emolled research
paiticipants help recmit future subjects for a study.
For example, a researcher who is seeking to study leadership patterns could ask individuals to
name others in their community who ai·e influ ential.
TI1is technique is called "snowball" because the sample group grows like a rolling snowball.
Non­probability s ampling means that researchers, or other participants, choose the sample as
opposed to randomly selecting it, so not all members of the population have an equal chance
of being selected for the study.
14. Difference between independent and dependent variable.

ANS: An Independent vai·iable is a vai·iable w hose value never depends on another vai-iable
whereas a dependent va1iable is a variable whose value depends on another va1iable.
The Independent variable is the presumed cause. On the other hand, the dependent variable is the
presumed effect.
Independent variables ai·e the predictors or regressors but dependent vaiiables ai·e often
refened as the predicted va1iable.
Independent variables do not need any complex mathematical procedures and obse1vations. On
the contraJy, dependent vaiiables ai·e obtained from longitudinal reseai·ch or by solving complex
mathematical equations.
Independent variables are positioned horizontally on the graph while dependent variables are
positioned ve1tically on the graph.
Any chai1ge in the independent vai·iable also affects the dependent vaiiable while any change
in dependent variable does not affect the independent vaiiable.

15. Relevance of grounded theory.

ANS: Grounded theory continues to be imp01tai1t to researchers for its flexibility and freedom
from perceived concepts, it fits, it works and it is always relevant. When Glaser and Strauss
published their 1967 book, they were working in a time where the majority were concerned with
establishing 'facts' and testing theories to verify 'truths'.
16. Meaning of ethnography.

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ANS: Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a

particular community or organization to obse1ve their behavior and interactions up close.
The word "ethnography'' also refers to the written report of the research that the
ethnographer produces afterwards.
Ethnography is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a deep understanding of a
group's shared culture, conventions, and social dynamics. However, it also involves some
practical and ethical challenges.

17. Criteria for selecting a case study.

ANS: Background- Does the case study contain enough recent history to provide infonnation
on how the agencies in the case studies analyzed their perfonnance and related info 1mation,
identified factors related to variations in progrmn perfom1ance, and used the resulting
info1mation?
• Outcomes - Does the case study clearly address whether perfo1mance and related info1mation
are associated not only with resulting changes in program activities but also to be associated with
changes in program outcomes?
• Communication -Does the case study provide evidence that author(s) have established effective
contacts within the relevant organization(s) to support the case study, and its findings and
conclusions?
• Multi-Level Application - To what extent are the case study findings expected to be useful to
state and local governments as well as to federal agencies?
• Logic Model - Does the case study provide some description of the logic model suppmting the
program, including linkage between strategic goals and perfonnance measures and targets, and if
appropriate, budgets?
• Conclusion(s) - Does the case study clearly articulate the conclusion that follows from its
analysis of the use of perfo1mance information, and if appropriate, identify any best practices
identified as pait of the analysis?
• Contribution to Research and Practice - To what extent does the case study provides insights,
lessons learned, observations, or best practices that would be useful in advancing the reseaJch and
practice related to perfo1mance, management, and evaluation?

18. Concept of cross sectional survey research design.

ANS: A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which you collect data from many
different individuals at a single point in time. In cross-sectional research, you
observe va1iables without influencing them.
Reseaid1ers in economics, psychology, medicine, epidemiology, ai1d the other social sciences all
make use of cross-sectional studies in their work. For example, epidemiologists who ai·e
interested

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in the cunent prevalence of a diseas e in a certain subset of the p opulation might use a
cross­sectional design to gather and analyze the relevant data.

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